'm 


il::.. 


jS%^k^^ 


■':'-A> 


Mi 


%  i'^HU   .    CL<? 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT    LOS  ANGELES 


^f' 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arclnive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


Iittp://www.archive.org/details/americanliusbandr01gayliala^ 


AMERICAN     HUSBANDRY 


A     SERIES     OF     ESSAYS     ON     AGRICULTURE. 


COMPILED    PRINCIPALLY    FROM     "  THB     CULTIVATOR"     AND 
"the  0ENE8EE   FARMER." 


WITH     ADDITIONS 


BY   WILLIS   GAYLORD   AND   LUTHER   TUCKER. 


IN     TWO      VOLOMEf 

VOL.    I. 


NEW    YORK: 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS, 

1864. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  ld40,  by 

Harfik  &  Brothbs^ 
lu  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  Southern  District  of  New- York. 


<T\ 

SsOlI 

Gc^s^ 

1 

COMPILERS'  PREFACE.        ^* 

•*) 

5^3       In  offering  to  the  agricultural  public  the  present 
volumes,  the  compilers  feel  that  a  few  words  in  ex- 
planation of  their  intentions  and  wishes  may  in  this 
place  be  necessary  and  proper.     Profoundly  im- 
pressed with  the  important  influence  which, the  cul- 
.  tivation  of  the  soil  exerts  on  the  prosperity  of  the  in- 
^  dividual  and  the  nation ;  confident  that  in  too  many 
«  cases  the  most  effectual  methods  of  promoting  this 
desired  prosperity  are  not  adopted ;  believing  that 
the  systems  of  farming  at  present  pursued  in  t^ps 
a?  country  are  usually  more  or  less  defective,  and  may 
^  be  greatly  improved  by  an  acquaintance  with  the  ad- 
oo  vanced  methods  of  more  experienced  countries,  and 
*^  a  thorough  investigation  by  our  farmers  of  the  prin- 
2  cipal  points  of  difference  between  their  husbandry 
Lu  and  ours,  we  have  endeavoured,  in  the  papers  se- 
lected and  prepared  for  these  volumes,  to  embrace 
such  general  principles  and  such  courses  of  practice 
as  will  conduce  most  certainly  to  benefit  and  im- 
[j  prove  the  condition  and  prospects  of  the  tiller  of  the 
flj  soil.    Very  little  space  has  been  devoted  to  mere 
^  theories  of  rural  economy,  a  correct  practice  from 
J  already  established  facts  being  considered  more  im- 
^  portant.    It  has  been  our  wish  and  endeavour  to  pre- 
"5  sent  such  a  manual  as  will  be  found  instructive  to 
Q  all  who  are  engaged  in  the  great  undertaking  of  pro- 
<  ducing  a  nation's  wealth  as  well  as  a  nation's  bread 


310 


'r^f^'yyy 


iv  compilers'  preface. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  first  volume,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  miscellaneous  articles  deemed  ne- 
cessary to  its  completeness,  is  from  the  fifth  and 
sixth  volumes  of  the  Cultivator,  and  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  expression  of  the  matured  opinions 
of  Judge  Buel  on  the  subject  of  Agriculture.  As  a 
proper  termination  to  this  volume,  we  have  included 
the  Address  prepared  by  him  for  delivery  before  the 
New-Haven  Agricultural  and  Horticultural  Societies, 
and  on  the  journey  to  perform  which  duty  his  valu- 
able life  was  closed.  A  large  portion  of  the  second 
volume,  the  chapters  on  the  Kitchen  and  Fruit  Gar- 
dens included,  were  written  and  prepared  expressly 
for  this  work ;  the  remaining  part  consisting  of  pa 
pers  selected  from  the  volumes  of  the  Genesee  Far 
mer.  To  the  whole  such  notes  have  been  appended, 
and  such  alterations  and  additions  generally  have 
been  made  as  were  deemed  essential  to  accompUsh 
the  object  we  had  in  view. 

It  is  not  expected  or  supposed  that  the  theories 
unfolded  or  the  practices  inculcated  in  these  volumes 
jje  perfect.  The  science  of  agriculture  is  necessa- 
rily progressive,  and  so,  of  course,  must  be  the  prac- 
tice. Our  object  and  aim  have  been  to  imbody  as 
much  useful  information  as  possible  ;  to  excite  in- 
quiry and  investigation,  and  furnish  the  means  for 
arriving  at  correct  and  just  conclusions.  How  far 
we  have  succeeded  in  our  design  is  left  for  the  de- 
cision of  an  enUghtened  agricultural  public. 

Stptember,  1840. 


CONTENTS 

OF      . 

THE   FIRST    VOLUME. 
CHAPTER  I. 

NEW  HUSBANDRY. 

Introduction. — Manuring. —  Draining. —  Good  Tillage. — AltemO' 
ting  Crops. — Root  Culture. — Fallow  Crops. — Rules  and  Sugget' 
tions  in  Husbatidry. — Comparative  Profits  of  the  Old  and  New 
Husbandry Page  9 

CHAPTER  H. 

ON  THE   NECESSITY  AND  MEANS  OF  IMPROYINO  OUR  HUS- 
BANDRY. 

Report  by  Judge  Buel 58 

CHAPTER  m. 

ROOT   CULTURE. 

The  Potato. — Manures. — Early  Potatoes. — Choice  of  Kinds. — 
Mode  of  Planting. — Harvesting  the  Crop. — Sorting  the  Crop.-~ 
Wintering  the  Crop. — Culture. —  Beet. — Carrot. —  Parsnip. — 
Turnip. —  Introductory  Remarks. —  Methods  op  Feeoino 
Roots. — Report  by  Judge  Buel. — Col.  Meacham  on  the  Carrot 
ondRutaBaga 73 

CHAPTER  IV. 

INDIAN   CORN. 

Varieties  of  Indian  Corn. — To  render  Com  prolific. — Culture  of 
Corn. —  Experiments  in  producing  improved  varieties  of  Indian 
Corn. — Experiments  in  Harvesting  Com. — Selection  of  Seed, 
and  Early  Maturity 108 


VI  CONTKNTI. 

CHAPTER  V. 

MANURES. 

What  quantity  should  be  apphefJ  to  an  Acre  T— Winter  Man- 
agement of  Manure —Specific  Manures. —  Bone  Manure. — 
Leached  Ashes.— Peat  Earth,  Peat  Ashes,  &c     .  Page  123 

CHAPTER  VI. 

IMPROVEMENT   OF   GRABS-LANDS. 

Of  Pasture. — Of  Meadow.— On  converting  Arable  or  Plough 
Land  into  Permanent  Meadow  or  Pasture. — Report  on  Grass- 
es and  Grass-Lands 148 

CHAPTER  VII. 

PLANTS. 

The  Germination  of  Seeds. — Roots  and  Leaves. — Extent  of  the 
RooUofPlanU         .       .  162 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

SWINE      ....   175 

CHAPTER  IX. 

6HEEP  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT. 

Native  Sheep.— Spanish  Merino.— Saxon  Merino. — New  Lei- 
cester or  Bakewell  Breed. — South  Down. — The  Influence  or 
Effect  of  Feed  on  the  Quantity  and  Quality  of  the  Wool  and 
Carcass 182 

CHAPTER  X. 

HISCE1.LANE0C8. 

Our  Country- our  whole  Countrv.- Clover:  its  value  for 
Cattle,  for  Seed,  and  for  the  Soil— Use  of  Clover.— Clover 
and  Clover-seed.— Prevention  of  Smut.— Why  is  it  best  to 
bury  Manure  T— Butter-making  — Drill  Husbandry.— Effect 
of  Steeps.— Modes  and  Profits  of  Strawberry  Culture.— Sta- 


CONTENTS.  Vll 

tistics  of  Amencan  Wool  and  Woollen  Manufactures. — Ex- 
periment in  Harvesting  Corn. — Cultivation  of  Cucumbers. — 
The  circumscribed  Farmer. — On  the  Application  of  Manures. 
— Efficacy  of  Lime  in  preventing  Insect  Depredations. — Mil- 
dew of  the  Gooseberry.— The  Philosophy  of  Pruning. — The 
Mind  and  the  Soil  Page  217 

CHAPTER  XL 

MISCELLANEOUS    ARTICLES — CONTINUED. 

Caleb  Kirk  on  Hedging. —  Animal  Nutrition.  —  On  the  Use 
of  Gypsum.  —  Choked  Cattle. —  Specilic  Food  in  Soils  for 
Plants 276 

CHAPTER  Xn. 

Address  of  the  Hon.  Judge  Buel,  delivered  before  the  Agricul- 
tural and  Horticultural  Societies  of  New-Haven  County, 
September  23,  1839 305 


AMERICAN   HUSBANDlRY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

NEW   HUSBANDRY. 

Introduction. —  Manuring. —  Draining. —  Good  Tillage. — Alterna- 
ting Crops. — Root  Culture. — Fallow  Crops. — Rules  and  Sugges- 
tions in  Husbandry. — Comparative  Profits  of  the  Old  and  New 
Husbandry. 

To  no  one  individual  is  the  agricultural  public  of 
this  country  more  indebted  for  correct  opinions  on 
the  important  subject  of  Improved  Husbandry  than 
to  Judge  BuEL  ;  and  his  influence  in  bringing  the  sys- 
tem into  repute  was  deservedly  the  greater,  as  the 
principles  he  advocated  in  his  writings  were  most 
happily  illustrated  and  enforced  by  his  practice. 
These  opinions  and  principles  are  imbodied  in  the 
following  chapter;  and  prepared,  as  the  subject- 
matter  was  by  him,  for  the  purpose  to  which  it  is 
now  appUed,  they  may  be  considered  as  the  result  of 
his  settled  convictions  and  his  matured  experience. 
The  principal  features  that  distinguish  the  New  from 
the  Old  Husbandry  are  here  made  sufficiently  appa- 
rent ;  and  the  theory  is  not  more  Ij^autifully  in  ac- 
cordance with  nature,  than  the  results  are  found  to 
Be  beneficial  to  the  agriculturist. 
I  — B 


10  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

The  introduction  and  eHtablishment  of  the  New 
Husbandry  in  England  required  many  years  for  its 
accomplishment ;  a  long  series  of  experiments  ;  the 
writings  of  many  distinguished  men ;  and  the  exam- 
ple of  individuals  of  known  science  and  skill.  There 
were  old  and  deep-rooted  prejudices  to  overcome  ; 
the  dread  of  innovation  to  encounter ;  the  habits  and 
usages  of  ages  to  break  up  and  eradicate,  before  the 
improvements,  which  have  proved  so  essential  and 
vital  to  the  prosperity  of  that  kingdom,  could  be  fix- 
ed on  their  present  secure  basis.  Men  bred  to  the 
business  of  farmmg  are  proverbially  reluctant  to 
submit  to  changes  affecting  their  modes  of  proceed- 
ing ;  and  when  some  of  the  proposed  methods  were 
found  to  conflict  entirely  with  the  courses  which 
they  and  their  fathers  had  pursued,  it  is  not  surprising 
that  such  novelties  were  regarded  with  suspicion  and 
distrust.  Perseverance,  however,  triumphed  over 
opposition ;  and  good  sense,  aided  perhaps  by  national 
necessities,  frowned  down  illiberality  and  persecu- 
tion ;  and  a  return  to  the  old  systems  of  cultivation, 
it  is  now  universally  admitted,  would  bring  speedy 
ruin,  if  not  absolute  starvation,  on  the  whole  nation 

The  United  States  have  received  their  agriculture, 
as  well  as  their  codes  of  morals  and  laws,  from  what 
may  well  be  designated  the  "  Fatherland ;"  and  al- 
though the  revolution  destroyed  the  sense  of  servile 
imitation  and  dependance  that  was  before  so  opera- 
tive, still  the  changes  that  were  gradually  going  on 
in  Great  Britain  were  not  without  their  influence  on 
the  fanning  systems  of  this.    There  was  a  mateiial 


NEW   HUSBANDRY.  11 

difference,  however,  in  the  state  and  condition  of  the 
two'countries,  that  produced  important  modifications 
in  the  action  of  these  changes.  There  the  popula- 
tion was  great,  and  the  quantity  of  land  limited ;  and 
the  necessities  of  that  population  enforced  the  jidop- 
tion  of  the  New  Husbandry  by  the  strongest  of  mo- 
tives, the  avoidance  of  stai'vation.  Here  land  was 
abundant ;  and  no  serious  evils,  so  far  as  regarded  a 
supply  of  bread,  could  arise ;  the  difficulty  to  be 
guarded  against  was  only  the  deterioration  of  soil 
to  which  the  action  of  the  Old  Husbandry  subject- 
ed lands.  Of  course,  little  attention,  on  the  whole, 
was  paid  to  the  matter  by  the  great  body  of  Ameri- 
can farmers ;  and  although  it  was  well  understood 
that  the  lands  in  the  older  settled  parts  of  the  coun- 
try had  lost  much  of  their  productiveness,  and  that 
the  new  system  would  remedy  this  alarming  and  in- 
creasing evil,  still  the  mass  persisted  in  their  ancient 
habits,  depending  on  migration  to  new  lands  in  the 
West  when  those  of  the  East  should  cease  to  reward 
the  labours  of  cultivation. 

That  such  a  feeling  was  erroneous  could  be  doubt- 
ed by  no  reflecting  mind ;  and,  fortunately  for  the 
country,  various  causes  combined  to  show  the  im- 
policy of  such  a  course.  Nature  herself,  in  such  an 
extended  country  as  ours,  has  interposed  checks  to 
the  general  prevalence  of  such  impressions.  The 
evils  and  privations  necessarily  consequent  on  a  re- 
moval from  an  improved  district  to  an  unimproved 
one  are  not  without  their  influence  ;  experience  has 
also  shown,  that  at  great  distances  in  the  interior,  al- 


12  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

though  all  the  necessaries  of  life  can  be  produced  in 
abundance,  there  are  comparatively  few  thing^  that 
can  be  grown  and  forwarded  to  a  distant  market 
with  the  expectation  of  profit ;  and  it  was  also  seen 
that,  if  the  productiveness  of  old  lands  was  not  equal 
to  that  of  new,  the  profits  of  cultivation  were  not, 
in  the  aggregate,  so  much  inferior  as  at  the  first 
glance  appeared.  More  than  all,  examples  were  not 
wanting  of  public-spirited  and  intelligent  farmers, 
who,  by  adopting  a  course  of  husbandry  that  had 
succeeded  so  well  abroad,  proved  most  satisfactorily 
that  worn-out  lands  could  be  restored  to  fertility  by 
skilful  cultivation  ;  that  the  progress  of  deterioration, 
80  prevalent  in  the  older  states,  could  be  checked  ; 
and  that  the  productiveness  and  consequent  value  of 
eastern  lands  could  be  so  greatly  increased  as  to 
render  a  resort  to  the  virgin  soils  of  the  West  unne- 
cessary to  those  who  were  already  in  possession  of 
eastern  farms. 

In  bringing  about  this  state  of  things,  the  names 
of  Livingston,  Powel,  and  Buel  have  an  honourable 
pre-eminence.  Others  effectively  co-operated ;  but  it 
may  be  said  that  to  these  men  the  high  praise  is  pe- 
culiarly due,  of  calling  the  attention  of  the  public 
mind  to  the  advantages  offered  by  the  New  Husband- 
ry. .  Unfettered  by  habits  unfavourable  to  change, 
and  unaffected  by  a  blind  veneration  for  ancient  usa- 
ges, so  pernicious  to  advances  in  the  cultivation  of 
the  soil,  these  men,  and  particularly  the  last  named, 
entered  upon  the  business  of  agriculture  with  a  de- 
termination to  avail  themselves  of  whatever  light 


NEW    HUSBANDRY.  13 

tho  experience  of  others  had  afforded ;  and  to  apply 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  earth  the  aids  that  science, 
and  an  increased  acquaintance  with  the  laws  that 
govern  the  formation  of  arable  soils,  and  the  growth 
and  improvement  of  vegetables,  could  give.  In  do- 
ing this,  they  necessarily  adopted,  with  suchmodifiJ 
cations  as  our  climate  and  country  required,  the  im- 
proved husbandry  of  Britain  and  Belgium,  and  this 
with  a  success  which  has  constituted  a  new-  era  in 
the  agricultural  history  and  prospects  of  the  United 
States.  Objections  have  been  made  and  opposition 
has  been  encountered,  but  in  a  less  degree  than  was 
perhaps  to  have  been  expected,  where  established 
and  ancient  usages  were  assailed ;  and  the  rapid  ex- 
tension of  the  principle  and  practice  of  the  New  Sys- 
tem, and  the  general  favour  with  which  it  is  viewed 
where  best  understood,  seem  to  indicate  that  the  im- 
proved husbandry  has  gained  a  permanent  and  secure 
footing  among  us.  Now  and  then,  indeed,  an  indi- 
vidual may  be  found  who  persists  in  cropping  his 
land  according  to  the  old  method,  until  it  is  so  redu- 
ced that  the  crops  will  not  pay  for  the  culture,  when 
he  abandons  it  to  the  recuperative  powers  of  nature, 
and  proceeds  to  repeat  the  same  exhausting  course 
on  another  section  of  his  farm ;  but  such  instances 
are  comparatively  rare ;  and  where  the  New  Hus- 
bandry is  not  avowedly  made  the  basis  of  the  agri- 
cultural course,  its  influence  may  be  traced  in  many 
ways,  such  as  in  the  more  general  rotation  of  crops, 
the  increased  quantity  of  roots  grown,  and  the  con- 
sequent improvement  in  the  numbers  and  quality  of 


14  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

the  cattle  and  sheep  of  the  country.  It  is  to  explain 
more  fully  the  principles  of  tlxis  system  of  farming ; 
the  reasons  which  render  it  preferable  to  the  older 
methods ;  and  the  general  outlines  of  the  practice  to 
be  pursued,  that  the  following  remarks  of  Judge  Buel 
were  penned,  and  from  which  the  reader  will  no  long- 
er be  lietained. — Editors. 

That  system  of  agriculture  known  by  the  appella  • 
tion  of  the  New  Husbandry,  and  the  general  princi 
pies  of  which  we  propose  to  point  out,  is  new  only 
comparatively,  and  in  contradistinction  to  the  old 
system,  which  is  generally  adopted  in  the  first  set- 
tlement of  a  country,  in  some  degree  as  a  matter  of 
necessity ;  but  which,  being  once  estabUshed,  is  too 
qften  persisted  in,  with  a  reckless  indifference  to  ul- 
terior consequences,  long  after  the  necessity  fOr  it 
has  ceased.  This  particularly  happens  in  countries 
like  ours,  where  new  and  virgin  soils  are  continually 
inviting  to  emigration.  What  we  denominate  the 
new  system  has  long  been  in  operation  in  the  valley 
of  the  Po,  in  Italy ;  indeed,  it  seems  to  have  been 
practised  there  by  the  Romans  in  the  meridian  of 
their  greatness,  and  in  Flanders,  and  for  the  last 
half  century  in  Great  Britain ;  and  it  has,  besides, 
for  some  time  had  many  faithful  followers  in  the 
United  States.  By  the  old  system  we  mean  that 
which,  generally  speaking,  has  impoverished,  and  is 
still  impoverishing,  the  soil  on  our  Atlantic  border, 
and  which  is  already  causing  indications  of  prema- 
ture exhaustion  and  poverty  in  some  portions  of  the 
new  West.  "As  much  vacant  land  as  this  district 
contains,".says  a  late  writer  of  East  Virginia,  "  there 
is  but  Utile  uncultivated  [old  fields]  which,  until  en- 
riched, will  yield  any  clear  profit.  Therefore,  East- 
em  Virginia,  in  its  present  state,  is  fully  populated, 
and  no  increase  can  be  expected  except  from  the  im- 


NEW    HUSBANDRY.  15 

provement  of  the  soil,  and  the  consequent  increased 
means  of  subsistence."  This  remark  will  hold  good 
in  many  portions  of  the  older  states.  By  New  Hus- 
bandry we  mean  the  art  (and  to  many  yet  a  mystery) 
of  progressively  increasing  the  fertility  and  products 
of  our  soils,  and  the  intrinsic  value  of  our  farms ; 
and  of  thereby  providing  the  means  of  subsistence 
for  our  increasing  population. 

There  are  no  universal  rules  for  doing  this.  Much 
depends  upon  climate  and  soil,  and  upon  the  distance 
and  demands  of  the  market.  The  products  of  the 
soil,  as  well  as  the  demands  for  them,  vary  gener- 
ally with  latitude.  Grain,  pulse,  roots,  and  grass, 
are  the  natural  products  of  higher  latitudes ;  rice, 
cotton,  and  tobacco,  constitute  the  staples  of  more 
temperate  regions ;  while  the  productions  of  the  tor- 
rid zone  vary  from  both  of  those  before  referred  to. 
Though  there  are  no  definite  rules  of  practice  that 
will  apply  to  all,  yet  there  are  essential  requisites  to 
success  that  have  a  general  application.  These  are 
capital,  industry,  and  perseverance,  and  knowledge 
to  apply  them  wisely  with  effect,  under  the  varied 
circumstances  of  climate,  soil,  and  market.  Great 
success  cannot  be  expected  in  any  laudable  underta- 
king without  persevering  industry ;  and  in  regard  to 
knowledge,  the  laws  which  govern  matter,  upon 
which  our  labours  are  to  be  expended,  are  the  same 
every^vhere ;  and  we  are  endowed  with  capacities 
for  investigating,  comprehending,  and  applying  many 
of  them  in  aid  of  labour,  the  profits  of  which  are  in 
a  measure  graduated  by  the  intelligence  which  gov- 
ern and  directs  it. 

The  New  System  of  Husbandry,  or  the  art  of  in- 
creasing the  fertility  and  products  of  the  soil,  con- 
sists in, 

1.  Manuring. 

2.  Draining. 

3.  Good  Tillage. 

4.  Alternating  Crops. 


16  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

6.  Root  Culture.    And, 

6.  In  substituting  Fallow  Crops  for  Naked  Fallows. 

Most  of  all  these  are  necessary  to  good  farming, 
according  to  soil,  climate,  and  location.  They  are 
the  4istinguishing  traits  of  the  new  husbandry  ;  and 
as  they  are  practised  witli  more  or  less  fidelity  and 
judgment,  in  the  same  proportion  are  they  likely  to 
advance  the  condition  of  our  agriculture,  and  to  ben- 
efit the  commonwealth. 

These  objects  have  become  so  hackneyed  from 
our  repeated  attempts  to  illustrate  their  bearing  upon 
the  prosperity  of  our  country,  that  we  almost  de- 
spair of  mteresting  our  readers  by  what  we  have  to 
offer ;  but  as  we  labour  in  our  vocation,  and  deem 
the  matter  in  question  of  deep  interest  to  the  farmer, 
we  shall  again  throw  our  seed  abroad,  in  the  hope 
that  at  least  a  portion  of  it  may  fall  iipon  the  ground 
and  yield  a  reasonable  increase. 

We  intend  to  discuss  the  several  subjects  we  have 
named,  and  shall  endeavour  to  show  the  why  and  the 
how  each  of  them  tends  to  benefit  the  farmer,  and  to 
advance  improvement  in  our  husbandry.  In  the  re- 
marks we  shall  offer,  it  will  be  our  endeavour  rather 
to  explain  the  principles  upon  which  the  new  system 
is  founded,  and  which  have  a  common  application, 
and  to  demonstrate  their  beneficial  influence  in  hus- 
bandry generally,  than  to  detail  the  minutiae  of  prac- 
tice, which  must,  in  some  degree,  ever  be  influenced 
and  controlled  by  local  causes. 

•      I.    MANURING. 

The  first  requisite  to  improving  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  is  plenty  of  food  for  the  crop  which  it  is  des- 
tined to  nourish.  The  meal-chest  must  be  occasion- 
ally replenished,  or  it  will  not  long  serve  to  supply 
the  wants  of  the  family.  The  kine  must  have  daily 
her  forage  or  her  grain,  or  she  will  withhold  her  ac- 
customed tribute  of  milk.  The  field,  which  yields 
an  aimual  contribution  to  the  husbandman,  will  be- 


MANURING.  17 

come  steril  if  nothing  is  returned  to  replace  the 
crops  annually  carried  off.  Philosophers  have  spec- 
ulated for  ages  as  to  What  constitutes  the  food  of 
plants  ?  Without  recapitulating  the  various  theories 
which  have  had  their  day  upon  this  point,  every  farm- 
er can  readily  respond  to  the  question,  from  per- 
sonal knowledge,  that  it  is  manure — vegetable  and 
animal  matters — which  constitute  the  true  food  of 
farm  crops.  Mineral,  fossil,  and  earthy  substances 
may  meliorate  the  soil,  and  increase  its  capacities 
for  the  healthy  development  and  maturity  of  plants, 
or  may  impart  wholesome  stimuli  to  the  organs  of 
plants  themselves;  but  vegetable  and  animal  sub- 
stances, after  all,  constitute  mainly  the  elementary 
food  of  plants  :  crops  on  well-prepared  grounds  are 
always  good  when  these,  in  a  soluble  state,  are 
known  to  abound ;  and  they  are  always  defective  or 
prove  a  failure  when  these  are  wanting.  Farmers 
should  hence  regard  manure  as  a  part  of  their  capital 
— as  money — which  requires  but  to  be  properly 
employed  to  return  them  usurious  interest.  They 
should  husband  it  as  they  would  their  cents  or  shil- 
lings, which  they  mean  to  increase  to  dollars.  They 
should  economize  every  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stance on  the  farm ;  and  when  it  has  subserved  other 
useful  purposes,  apply  it,  by  mixing  it  properly  with 
the  soil,  to  the  increase  of  the  coming  harvest ;  put 
it  to  interest,  that  it  may  return  the  owner  its  per 
centage  of  profit  in  grain,  roots,  and  forage,  and  ul- 
timately in  the  increase  of  meat,  and  fn  the  products 
of  the  fleece  and  dairy.  Every  load  of  manure  well 
applied  to  the  farm  will  increase  its  products  to  the 
value  of  one  dollar.  The  fanner,  therefore,  who 
wastes  a  load  of  manure,  is  as  reckless  and  improv- 
ident as  he  who  throws  away  a  bushel  of  corn  in  the 
dearest  times.  Not  only  what  is  denominated  ma- 
nure, as  the  contents  of  the  cattle  and  hog  yards, 
and  the  cleaning  of  the  stable  (the  amount  of  which 
may  be  greatly  increased  by  stalks,  weeds,  vines, 


18  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

and  other  vegetable  matters),  may  be  transformed 
into  farm  produce ;  but  the  rich  earth  of  swamps, 
ditches,  and  waters,  the  leaves  of  the  forest,  urine, 
soapsuds,  &c.,  are  all  convertible  to  a  like  use.  He 
that  will  not  feed  his  crops  with  manure,  should  not 
complain  if  his  crops  fail  to  feed  him  with  bread. 

As  the  grain,  roots,  and  forage  destined  to  feed 
the  family  and  the  farm  stock  require  the  best  care 
of  the  husbandman  to  prevent  waste  and  injury,  so 
does  the  memure  which  is  destined  to  feed  his  crops. 
Fermentation,  if  suffered  to  exhaust  its  powers  upon 
it,  materially  lessens  its  value  ;  the  wind  and  the  sua 
dissipate  its  virtues,  and  the  rains  leach  it  and  waste 
its  fertilizing  powers.  The  same  care  given  to  the 
food  of  vegetables  which  should  be  given  to  the  food 
of  animals,  will  be  richly  recompensed  in  the  in- 
creased product  of  the  har\'est. 

Lime,  marl,  gypsum,  and  ashes  are  all  beneficial- 
ly applied  to  increase  fertiUty  under  certain  circum- 
stances, which  it  is  unnecessary  for  us  here  to  par- 
ticularize. Stiff  clays  are  also  benefited  by  the  ap- 
plication of  sand ;  light  sands  are  improved  by  the 
admixture  of  clay ;  while  both  clay  and  sand  are  im- 
proved by  the  addition  of  marl  or  other  calcareous 
substances. 

If  we  contrast  the  common  with  the  improved 
practice  in  regard  to  the  management  of  dung,  we 
shall  readily  see  that  tlie  difference  in  preserving  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  is  incalculably  great :  enough  to 
induce  poverty  in  one  case,  and  to  enrich  the  propri- 
etor in  the  other.  Even  the  best  class  of  our  farm- 
srs,  who  are  deemed  judicious  managers,  seldom 
avail  themselves  of  half  the  resources  of  fertility 
which  their  farms  or  neighbourhoods  afford  ;  not 
half  that  are  put  in  successful  requisition  by  the  far- 
mers of  Great  Britain  and  Flanders.  Besides,  what 
manure  they  do  make  is  in  general  badly  husbanded. 
They  suffer  the  gaseous  portions  to  waste  in  the  air, 
instead  of  being  absorbed  by  and  enriching  tlie  soil, 


MANURING.    ,  19 

and  the  liquid  to  course  down  hill  to  the  highway  or 
the  brook.  But  what  shall  we  say  of  the  mass  of 
our  farmers  1  We  have  travelled  hundreds  of  miles 
to  the  west,  and  seen  great  quantities  of  manure  in 
the  yards  and  about  the  barns  (often  the  accumula- 
tion of  years),  seemingly  considered  by  the  owners 
rather  as  an  encumbrance  or  a  nuisance  than  as  a 
source  of  fertility  and  of  wealth.  In  the  new  sys- 
tem of  husbandry,  the  farmer's  profits  are,  in  a  meas- 
ure, graduated  by  the  quantity  of  manure  he  is  en- 
abled to  produce  from  his  farm.  In  the  first  num- 
ber of  the  fourth  volume  of  the  Cultivator,  we  gave 
estimates,  from  high  authorities,  of  the  amount  pro- 
duced upon  farms  in  Great  Britain.  Dr.  Coventry, 
Agricultural  Professor  in  the  Edinburgh  University, 
gives  to  each  acre  of  straw  four  tons  of  manure  man- 
ufactured by  farm-stock.  A  Berwickshire  farmer, 
quoted  by  Sir  John  Sinclair,  obtained  four  cart  loads, 
of  30  to  35  cubic  feet  each,  from  every  ox  wintered 
upon  straw  and  turnips.  Meadow-land  is  stated  to 
produce  from  four  to  six  tons  of  manure  to  the  acre ; 
and  the  available  sources  of  fertility  upon  a  farm  are 
estimated  to  be  sufficient  to  give  a  full  supply  of  ma- 
nure once  in  every  course  of  the  four-year  system 
of  husbandry.  Arthur  Young,  with  six  horses,  four 
cows,  nine  hogs,  and  suitable  litter,  made  118  loads  of 
dung,  36  bushels  each,  in  a  winter.  Cattle  fed  with 
turnips  are  computed  to  make  double  the  manure 
that  those  do  which  are  fed  on  dry  fodder  alone ; 
and  an  acre  of  turnips,  with  an  adequate  quantity  of 
straw,  has  produced  16  cart  loads  of  dung.  It  wiU 
be  readily  perceived,  that  by  this  mode  of  arrange- 
ment, ample  means  are  provided  for  keeping  up  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  when  put  under  a  four-shift  sys- 
tem of  husbandry. 

What,  now,  is  the  common  quantity  of  manure 
under  the  old  system!  Taking  our  state  or  our 
country  at  large,  we  are  confident  the  average  quan- 
tity which  is  judiciously  applied  will  not  amount  to 


20  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

one  load  an  acre,  and  we  are  doubtful  if  it  will  amount 
to  half  a  load.  Can  it  be  wondered,  then,  that,  under 
such  reckless  management,  of  returning  to  the  soil 
only  a  quarter  or  an  eighth  of  what  we  take  from  it 
of  the  food  of  plants,  our  lands  should  continue 
to  grow  poor  till  they  no  longer  yield  a  reward  to 
culture  1  The  cultivated  lands  in  this  state  are  esti- 
mated at  eight  millions  of  acres.  On  the  supposi- 
tion that  one  half  of  them  is  appropriated  to  tillage 
and  meadow  (and  this  is  a  low  estimate),  we  might 
produce  and  apply  annually,  under  the  new  system 
of  husbandry  (and  Ave  ought  to  do  so),  sixteen  mill- 
ion tons  of  manure,  worth  to  the  country,  at  a  low 
computation,  sixteen  millions  of  dollars ;  whereas 
we  now  produce,  under  the  old  system,  certainly  not 
more  than  four  million  tons,  thereby  suffering  an  an- 
nual loss,  independent  of  the  certain  and  constant 
diminution  in  the  product  and  value  of  our  lands,  of 
twelve  millions  of  dollars  in  the  single  item  of  ma- 
nures !  This  is  not  a  visionary  speculation ;  it  is 
sober  truth ;  and  we  ask  any  intelligent  man  to  show, 
from  facts,  a  less  unfavourable  conclusion. 

We  Avill  merely  remark  here,  in  regard  to  the  ap- 
plication of  manures,  that,  if  used  in  an  unfermented 
state,  they  should  be  buried  with  the  plough,  and  ap- 
plied to  a  hoed  or  autumn-ripening  crop ;  if  used  in 
a  rotted  state,  they  may  be  blended  with  the  sur- 
face, and  applied  to  a  summer-ripening  crop.  We 
will  give  two  reasons  for  this  practice.  Manure  fer- 
tilizes in  two  ways :  by  the  gaseous  matters  which 
are  evolved  in  fermentation,  and  which  rise ;  and  by 
liquid  matters,  which  sink.  If  used  before  it  has  part- 
ed with  its  gases,  manure  should  be  buried,  that  the 
incumbent  soil  may  imbibe  these  fertilizing  elements. 
If  the  manure  has  been  rotted,  it  has  parted  with  its 
gaseous  matters,  and  all  its   remaining   fertilizing 

Eroperties  are  liable  to  be  carried  down  by  the  rains ; 
ence  this  latter  may  be  deposited  near  the  surface 


MANURING.  21 

Again,  fresh  manures,  even  in  a  liquid  form,*  induce 
a  rank  growth  of  herbage ;  but  they  do  not  produce 
good  plump  seed.  Hence,  if  applied  to  common 
small  grains,  they  cause  a  great  growth  of  straw  at 
the  expense  of  the  grain  :  fermentation  being  most 
rapid  at  midsummer,  when  the  seed,  and  not  the 
straw,  requires  the  food.  Hut  the  autumn-ripening 
crops,  as  com,  &c.,  are  in  that  state  at  midsummer 
which  requires  strong  food  to  perfect  their  stalks 
and  leaves  ;  and  the  fermentation  of  the  manure  has 
subsided  before  the  grain  matures  in  autumn.  Fos- 
sil manures,  as  hme,  marl,  gypsum,  are  applied  upon 
the  surface  or  buried  superficially,  because  their  dis- 
position is  to  settle  down,  and  they  give  off  no  gas- 
eous food. 

Individuals,  it  is  true,  are  but  units ;  yet  the  ag- 
gregation of  units  makes  millions,  and  the  aggrega- 
tion  of  individuals  constitutes  nations.  We  should 
all  act  as  though  individual  example  had  an  impo- 
sing influence  upon  the  whole.  In  the  matter  which 
we  have  just  discussed,  every  farmer  may  be  as- 
sured that,  by  adopting  our  suggestions,  he  will  un- 
questionably promote  his  own  interest,  and,  by  his 
example,  benefit  society. 

Having  shown  that  manures  are  indispensable  to 
good  husbandry ;  that  they  constitute  the  food  of 
plants ;  and  that  they  may  be  greatly  increased  by 
good  management,  we  proceed  now  to  the  next  re- 
quisite in  the  new  system  of  husbandry,  viz. : 

♦  Col,  Le  Courteur  (see  Farmer's  Magazine)  tried  stable  ma- 
nure and  liquid  manilre,  the  latter  diluted,  upon  his  wheat.  The 
grain  tillered  much,  or  gave  a  great  growth  of  straw  and  grass ; 
but  the  product  in  grain  was  diminished.  When  the  liquid 
manure  was  applied  a  second  time,  by  being  poured  upon  the 
growing  wheat,  the  straw  was  very  rank  ;  but  the  plants  pro 
duced  only  a  few  ears  of  wheat,  and  those  were  very  defective 
in  grain. 


22  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 


II.  DRA.IMNO. 

Few  improvements  of  modern  date  are  likely  to 
become  more  beneficial  to  the  northern  section  of 
the  union  than  systematic  draining.  In  the  first 
place,  it  will  reclaim  and  render  highly  productive 
large  tracts  of  land,  which  are  now  unproductive  of 
anything  useful,  by  reason  of  the  water  which  con- 
stantly covers  or  saturates  them.  In  the  next  place, 
it  will  improve  the  lands  that  are  wet,  and  render 
them  far  more  manageable  and  productive  in  grain, 
roots,  and  the  more  nutritious  grasses,  by  carrying 
off  the  superfluous  water.  When  there  is  an  excess 
of  moisture  in  the  soil,  ploughing  can  be  only  imper- 
fectly performed,  and  not  until  late  in  spring :  the 
benefit  of  manure  is  thereby  lost,  and  the  cultivated 
crop  is  light,  and  more  subject  to  vernal  and  autum- 
nal frosts  than  it  would  be  if  the  land  were  laid  dry. 

The  soil,  in  regard  to  vegetable  nutrition,  may  be 
compared  to  the  animal  stomach,  which  digests ;  and 
the  spongeoles  or  rootlets  of  the  plant,  to  the  lac- 
teals  of  the  animal,  which  absorb,  and  take  up,  and 
propel  the  digested  food  to  the  elaborating  organs 
(the  lungs  in  the  one  and  the  leaves  in  the  other), 
where  this  food  undergoes  its  last  preparation,  and 
is  fitted  to  become  a  part  of  the  organic  matter  of 
the  animal  or  vegetable.  We  all  know  that  when 
the  animal  stomach  is  from  any  cause  out  of  order, 
so  that  the  food  taken  into  it  is  not  properly  digest- 
ed, the  subsequent  processes  of  nutrition  are  arrest- 
ed ;  and  if  the  cause  be  not  removed,  the  animal  sick- 
ens, and  ultimately  dies.  So  with  the  soil.  If  the 
vegetable  matter  deposited  there  to  feed  the  crop  be 
not  decomposed  or  rotted,  and  resolved  into  a  liquid 
or  gaseous  form,  so  that  it  can  be  taken  up  by  the 
spongeoles,  the  plant  will  become  sickly  and  unpro- 
ductive, and  the  processes  of  healthy  nutrition  be  at 
a  stand.  Hence  the  accumulation  of  vegetable  mat- 
ters in  swamps,  marshes,  and  other  localities  habitu- 


DRAINING.  23 

ally  saturated  with  water,  and  their  great  fertility 
when  thoroughly  drained  and  exposed  to  the  influ- 
ence of  all  the  agents  of  putrefaction ;  and  hence 
the  necessity  of  draining  the  wet  grounds  on  our 
farms  before  we  can  expect  to  make  them  profitable 
by  culture.  Coarse  and  aquatic  plants,  it  is  true,  do 
grow  in  wet  grounds  and  in  water;  but  few  of  the 
cultivated  crops,  however,  are  found  to  thrive  where 
the  ground  is  not  dry  and  permeable  to  the  influence 
of  the  sun  and  atmosphere. 

It  is  not  enough  that  the  surface  of  a  soil  be  dry : 
it  must  be  so  to  the  depth  to  which  the  roots  of 
plants  penetrate  for  food,  at  least  fifteen  to  eighteen 
inches,  to  ensure  a  healthy  growth  of  vegetation.  It 
is  the  extremities  of  these  roots  which  gather  the 
food,  and  which  are  constantly  elongating  while  the 
plant  grows  ;  and  if  roots  extend  into  a  wet  stratum, 
the  food  which  they  take  up  is  either  too  much  dilu- 
ted, or  not  otherwise  adapted  to  a  healthy  vegetation. 
Nor  is  this  all:  the  water  injures  or  destroys  the 
fibrous  parts  of  the  roots,  and  unfits  theiii  for  the  per- 
fornlance  of  their  functions. 

We  have  published  ample  directions  in  the  Culti- 
vator for  the  various  modes  of  draining,  and  have 
pressed  upon  the  notice  of  our  readers  the  impor- 
tance of  this  branch  of  improvement.  Yet  we  have 
a  few  remarks  to  offer  here  on  the  particular  advan- 
tages which  under-drains  possess  over  open  drains 
in  certain  situations. 

The  object  of  draining  being  to  carry  off  the  sur- 
plus water  before  it  saturates  the  surface  soil,  im- 
pedes early  tillage,  and  injures  the  crop,  it  should  be 
our  first  care  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  wetness,  and 
where  the  deposite  or  fountain  is  which  is  the 
source  of  the  evil.  Where  water  rises  through  the 
subsoil  or^ower  strata,  in  spouts  or  springs,  as  well 
as  where,  falling  upon  a  flat  surface,  it  collects  and 
reposes  upon  an  impervious  subsoil,  under-drains  are 
decidedly  best,  at  least  to  collect  the  surplus  waters 


24  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

into  a  main  open  drain.  They  arc  not  only  best  be- 
cause the  most  efficient,  but  they  are  the  most  dura- 
ble, most  economical,  and  waste  no  land. 

They  are  the  most  efficient.  They  can  be  made  to 
reach,  by  digging  and  boring,  the  dep6t  of  water  or 
water  stratum,  and  thus  to  carry  it  off  before  it  ap- 
proaches the  surface,  or  pasture  of  plants.  Open 
drains  do  this  but  seldom  or  but  imperfectly,  because 
they  are  not  often  carried  deep  enough,  and  are  con- 
tinually liable  to  obstructions,  which  impair  their  ef- 
ficacy. 

They  are  most  durable.  An  tmder-drain,  laid  in  the 
most  approved  mode,  with  stone  or  tile,  will  last  an 
age,  if  not  a  century.  Whereas  open  drains  are  but 
temporary  in  their  beneficial  eflFects  without  period- 
ical repairs.* 

They  are  the  most  economical.  A  good  under-drain 
generally  costs  no  more  than  a  good  open  drain, 
which  effects  a  hke  purpose,  and  probably  not  so 
much,  as  the  former  can  be  carried  down  with  nearly 
perpendicular  sides,  while  the  latter  must  be  dug 
with  sloping  banks,  and  must  embrace  a  width  of 
surface,corresp)onding  with  its  depth :  the  deeper  the 
drain,  the  broader  it  must  be  at  top.  The  cost  of 
the  stone  or  tile  is  in  a  manner  counterbalanced  by 
the  difference  in  excavation.  And,  when  completed, 
the  under-drain  will  require  no  annual  repairs,  while 
the  open  one  will  be  a  constant  drain  upon  the  labour 
of  the  farm,  requiring  bridges,  and  frequent  scouring 
and  cleaning.  If  under-drains  cost  sometimes  the 
most,  they  are  unquestionably  the  cheapest  in  the  end 
— provided  they  are  well  made. 

Under-drains  waste  no  land.  They  may  be  multi- 
plied at  every  twenty  feet,  as  they  sometimes  are 
upon  stiff"  flat  clays,  without  excluding  the  plough  or 
the  scythe  from  a  foot  of  the  surface.  Open  drains, 
on  the  contrSry,  if  made  of  suitablQ  dimensions,  re- 
quire a  breadth  of  three  or  four  feet,  and  the  plough 
is  excluded  from  as  much  more  at  their  sides. 


GOOD    TILLAGE.  25 

We  draw  no  comparisons,  nor  do  we  need  any, 
between  the  products  of  a  field  of  habitually  wet 
soil,  or  the  trouble  and  expense  of  managing  it,  and 
the  same  field  after  it  has  undergone  a  thorough 
drainage  and  amelioration.  Every  farmer,  we  pre- 
sume, has  noticed  the  vast  disparity  in  both.  If 
there  is  one  to  whom  it  is  not  familiar,  let  him  make 
the  trial,  and  he  will  be  astonished  at  the  result,  and 
at  his  own  want  of  forethought  in  not  having  made 
it  before. 

in.   GOOD   TILLAGE. 

When  thorough  draining  has  been  effected  upon 
lands  to  be  benefited  thereby,  there  is  another  oper- 
ation which  is  calculated  to  aid  in  the  efiiciency  of 
manures  and  in  the  increase  of  farm  products.  This 
is  good  tillage — a  perfect  pulverization  of  the  soil, 
and  the  keeping  it  free  from  weeds,  which  retard  the 
growth  of  the  crop,  and  rob  it  of  its  food.  Good  til- 
lage is  important  not  only  as  it  serves  to  exterminate 
weeds,  to  facilitate  the  digestion  of  vegetable  food, 
and  to  mix  and  to  incorporate  this  food  with  earthy 
elements  ;  but  as  it  breaks  and  mellows  the  soil,  and 
enables  the  roots  of  plants  to  range  freely  in  search 
of  this  food.  Every  farmer  must  have  observed,  that 
where  tillage  has  been  but  imperfectly  performed,  as 
is  sometimes  seen  about  stumps  and  rocks,  and  near 
fences,  the  crop  is  comparatively  feeble  and  light. 
This  cannot  be  ov\-ing  to  the  poverty  of  the  soil,  be- 
cause the  plough,  as  it  rises  to  the  surface  in  these 
places,  deposites  and  accumulates  there  the  best  and 
finest  mould  of  the  field.  The  feebleness  of  the 
grain  arises  from  the  imperfect  tillage  which  those 
spots  receive.  The  old  practice  of  carrying  the 
main  furrows  to  the  extremity  of  the  field,  and  of 
dispensing  with  head-lands,  is  a  bad  and  slovenly 
one,  and  ought  to  be  everywhere  exploded.  The  cut 
and  cover  practice  is  still  worse,  as  it  leaves  one  half, 
and  sometimes  two  thirds  of  the  soil  miiiisturbed  by 

I.— C 


26  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

the  plough.  We  remember  well,  that  when  we  fol- 
lowed the  plough  in  our  boyish  days,  and  knew  no- 
thing of  the  philosophy  of  ploughing,  our  aim  was  to 
go  over  much  ground  and  show  a  ploughed  surface, 
regarding  the  complete  breaking  up  of  the  soil  as  of 
minor  importance.  There  will  always  be  a  great 
many  boys  at  the  plough  until  the  importance  of  good 
ploughing  is  better  understood .  Good  ploughing  con- 
sists in  breaking  or  turning  every  inch  of  the  soil ; 
and  good  tillage  requires  that  the  harrow  and  roller 
shonjld  finish,  if  the  plough  has  failed  to  effect  it,  a 
complete  pulverization  of  the  soil.  A  green  sward 
becomes  pulverulent  as  the  roots  of  the  grasses  de- 
cay, and  is  best  without  a  second  furrow,  because 
this  turns  again  to  the  surface,  to  the  wasting  influ- 
ence of  the  sun  and  winds,  the  vegetable  matter  bu- 
ried by  the  first  ploughing,  and  which,  if  left  buried, 
would  contribute  largely  to  the  sustenance  of  the 
crop.  As  the  roots  of  the  grasses  decay,  the  soil 
becomes  loose  and  porous,  and  is  permeable  to  moist- 
ure, air,  and  heat.  Hence  the  advantage  of  fallow 
crops  over  naked  fallows,  and  of  depositing  seeds 
upon  the  top  of  a  clover  lay :  the  sod  then  imparts 
fertility  to  the  soil,  while  it  enables  it  to  derive  im- 
portant advantages  from  the  co-operation  of  external 
agents. 

Good  tillage  requires  that,  wherever  it  is  practi- 
cable, as  in  the  culture  of  drilled  and  hoed  crops,  the 
surface  soil  should  be  kept  clean  and  pulverulent 
while  the  crop  is  growing,  for  the  same  reason  that 
the  soil  is  required  to  be  made  so  before  depositing 
the  seed,  viz.,  to  facilitate  the  decomposition  of  the 
vegetable  food,  to  stimulate  the  organs  of  the  plants, 
and  increase  the  growth  and  product  of  the  crop. 
There  is  no  better  expedient  for  preventing  the  evils 
of  drought  upon  a  soil,  than  that  of  keeping  the  sur- 
face mellow  and  clean.  Atmospheric  air  and  dew, 
both  always  charged  with  the  nutritive  food  of  plants, 
settle  into  such  a  surface  as  into  a  sponge,  and  impart 


GOOD    TILLAGE.  27 

to  the  roots  of  plants  both  aliment  and  stimuli. 
Dews  falling  upon  a  hard  surface  are  evaporated  by 
the  first  rays  of  the  morning  sun ;  but  they  penetrate 
a  loose  surface,  and  moisten  and  fructify  it.  Hence 
the  high  repute  of  the  drill  husbandry,  which  enables 
the  cultivator  to  keep  his  crops  clean,  and  the  surface 
of  his  soil  mellow  and  open. 

Good  tillage  has  reference  to  depth  as  well  as  qual- 
ity of  tilth.  "  There  are  many  plants,  the  roots  of 
which  are  found  at  fifteen  to  twenty  and  even  thirty 
feet  under  ground — sainfoin  and  lucerne,  for  instance : 
even  red  clover  will  strike  down  to  nearly  three  feet 
if  the  soil  be  a  fertile  loam  ;  and  some  of  our  com- 
monest  vegetables,  if  it  be  friable  or  sandy,  push 
their  tap  roots  to  about  the  same  depth.  The  roots 
of  wheat  will  penetrate  as  far  as  eight  inches  into 
the  earth ;  and  when  sown  on  the  crown  of  ridges, 
they  have  been  found  at  the  depth  of  twelve.  We 
may  therefore  assume  the  depth  of  twelve  inches  as 
the  utmost  vegetable  limit  of  com  land.  Provided 
the  soil  be  open  and  fertile,  the  nearer  its  depth  ap- 
proaches to  twelve  inches,  the  greater  number  of 
plants  may  it  therefore  be  supposed  capable  of  fur- 
nishing with  support." — Brit.  Husb.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  49, 
50.  Soils  should  be  ploughed  as  deep  as  the  sub- 
stratum will  admit,  at  least  once  in  a  course  of  crops, 
if  this  can  be  reached  with  the  force  of  an  ordinary 
team ;  and  when  the  surface  soil  is  superficial,  it 
should  be  deepened,  as  fast  as  fertility  can  be  im- 
parted, by  turning  up,  at  suitable  intervals,  some  por- 
tion of  the  subsoil.  The  atmosphere  imparts  to  this 
apparent  inert  earth  more  or  less  of  the  elements  of 
fertility.  Baron  Von  Voght  increased  vastly  the 
value  and  products  of  his  farm,  by  increasing  the 
depth  of  its  mould  (krume  or  vegetable  pasture), 
in  this  way,  in  the  period  of  sixteen  years,  from 
three  to  fourteen  inches.  Land  that  in  the  outset 
would  not  yield  him  fourteen  bushels  of  rye  to  the 
acre,  was  by  this  mode  of  improvement  brought  to 


28  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

yield  twenty-four  bushels  of  wheat;  and  the  im- 
provement was  not  confined  to  a  part,  but  extended 
to  the  whole  farm,  comprising  some  hundred  acres. 
The  reader  is  referred  for  a  detail  of  these  improve- 
ments, and  an  account  of  the  baron's  excellent  sys- 
tem of  husbandry,  to  No.  1,  vol.  ii.,  of  the  Cultivator. 
And  it  has  just  been  announced  to  us  in  a  foreign 
journal,  as  one  of  the  greatest  improvements  of  the 
age  in  rural  affairs,  that  a  plough  has  been  invented 
which  breaks  and  pulverizes  the  subsoil  without 
turning  it  to  the  surface.  Its  advantages  to  agricul- 
ture are  thus  described  by  Le  Fever  in  Loudon's 
Magazine  : 

"  Smith's  subsoil  plough  seems  calculated  to  ren- 
der the  most  steril  and  unproductive  soil  fertile  and 
profitable.  Mr.  Smith's  most  ingenious  invention, 
by  breaking  the  subsoil  without  bringing  it  to  the 
surface,  renders  it  pervious  to  both  air  and  water. 
The  same  chymical  changes  which  take  place  in  a 
fallow,  owing  to  its  exposure  to  the  action  of  the 
winds  and  rain,  are  thus  brought  into  operation  in 
the  subsoil,  while  the  surface  soil  is  in  the  ordinary 
course  of  cropping  ;  and  when,  after  a  few  years,  by 
a  greater  depth  of  ploughing,  the  subsoil  is  mixed 
with  the  upper  soil,  it  is  found  to  be  so  completely 
changed  in  its  nature  as  to  be  capable  of  producing 
every  kind  of  corn." 

Jethro-Tull  and  his  disciples  maintained  that  the 
great  secret  of  inducing  fertility  consisted  in  mi- 
nutely dividing  and  pulverizing  the  soil  by  culture  ; 
and  John  Taylor,  the  arator  of  Virginia,  and  an  ex- 
cellent practical  as  well  as  scientific  farmer,  consid- 
ered the  atmosphere  as  the  great  storehouse  of  ve- 
getable food,  where  this  food  exists  in  a  gaseous 
form.  The  good  tillage  we  advocate  embraces  all 
the  advantages  of  TuU's  an3  Taylor's  theories,  with- 
out lessening  the  importance  which  we  attach  to 
barn-yard  manure. 

The  deep  ploughing  of  dry  land,  or  the  breakiiig 


GOOD    TILLAGE.  29 

ap  and  stirring  of  the  subsoil,  promotes  fertility  by 
increasing  the  power  of  the  land  to  absorb  water  by 
cohesive  attraction.  "  The  power  of  soils  to  absorb 
water  from  air,"  says  Davy,  "  is  much  connected 
with  fertility.  This  power  depends  in  a  great  meas- 
ure upon  the  state  of  division  of  its  parts  ;  the  more 
divided  they  are,  the  greater  their  absorbent  power. 
When  this  power  is  great,  the  plant  is  supplied  with 
moisture  in  dry  seasons  ;  and  the  eifect  of  evapora- 
tion in  the  day  is  counteracted  by  the  absorption  of 
aqueous  vapour  from  the  atmosphere,  by  the  interioi 
parts  of  the  soil  during  the  day,  and  by  both  the  ex- 
terior and  interior  during  the  night."  The  soil  im- 
bibes caloric  earlier  in  the  spring,  and  retains  it  la- 
ter in  autumn,  in  proportion  as  it  is  dry  and  deep  ;  a 
matter  of  high  consideration  in  cold  climates,  where 
the  length  of  the  summer  scarcely  suffices  to  mature 
the  crops.  The  quality  and  dryness  being  the  same, 
a  soil  is  fertile  and  durable  nearly  in- proportion  to 
the  depth  of  the  tillage  which  it  receives  :  six  inches 
giving  nearly  double  the  pasture  for  plants  that  a 
three-inch  stratum  does ;  and  a  twelve-inch  tilth 
greatly  exceeding  in  productiveness  one  of  only  six 
inches.  Von  Thaer  calculates  this  difference  in  pro- 
portionate degrees  in  lands  which  contain  a  vegeta- 
tive stratum  of  soil  of  four,  six,  eight,  and  twelve 
inches  in  depth,  provided,  of  course,  that  it  be  all 
of  equal  quality.  If,  therefore,  each  seed  were  to 
produce  a  plant,  it  would  follow  that  ground  which 
contains  eight  inches  of  depth  of  fertile  mould  might 
be  sown  with  double  the  quantity  of  that  which  con- 
sists of  only  four  inches.  He  however  admits,  that 
this  principle  cannot  be  carried  to  that  extent,  be- 
cause the  action  of  the  atmosphere  must  ^er  afford 
that  superiority  to  the  surface,  that  a  cubic  foot  of 
mould,  if  divided  into  two  square  feet,  will  always 
produce  a  greater  number  of  plants  than  if  the  seed 
were  sown  upon  one  foot  superficial;  but  he  as- 
sumes the  value  of  the  land  to  be  increased  in  the 


30  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

proportion  of  eight  per  cent,  for  every  inch  of  mould 
oeyond  the  depth  of  six  to  ten  inches,  and  to  be  di- 
minished in  the  same  proportion,  from  six  to  three 
inches,  in  soils  of  a  thinner  staple. — Principes  Rai- 
sonnes  (T Agriculture,  vol.  iii.,  p.  138,  s.  735.  Those 
considerations  have  been  hitherto  but  little  regarded 
in  our  practice,  though  they  constitute  an  important 
feature  in  the  new  system  of  husbandry.    , 

Good  tillage  demands  also  the  extirpation  of 
weeds.  Every  plant  growing  upon  a  soil  tends  to  im- 
pair its  fertility,  and  weeds  generally  more  than  cul- 
tivated crops,  because  they  are  commonly  the  most 
hardy  and  the  greatest  consumers  of  vegetable  food. 
They  are  particularly  prejudicial  to  crops  in  a  dry 
season,  as  they  exhaust  the  soil  of  moisture  in  pro- 
portion to  their  superficies,  or  the  surface  of  their 
stems  and  leaves;  some  species  transpiring  their 
weight  of  moisture  every  twenty-four  hours.  The 
drill  culture  and  deep  ploughing  both  lessen  the  evil 
of  weeds ;  the  first  tends  to  destroy  them,  and  the 
latter  to  bury  their  seeds  so  deep  as  to  prevent  the 
plants  getting  ahead  of  and  choking  the  young  crop. 
Clean  tillage  has  been  too  much  neglected  in  our 
practice.  Many  crops  are  diminished  a  fourth,  a 
third,  and  even  a  half  by  pestiferous  weeds,  which 
are  permitted  to  seed  and  propagate  upon  the  land. 

Good  tillage  requires  good  implements,  and  these 
to  be  kept  in  order,  that  the  farm-work  may  be  eco- 
nomically done,  and  well  done,  and  done  at  the  prop- 
er time.  The  disparity  between  the  old  and  the  new 
implements  of  culture  is  great,  not  only  in  the  time 
employed,  but  in  the  manner  in  which  they  do  the 
work,  and  in  the  power  which  is  required  to  perform 
it.  ThffT)ld  plough  requires  a  four-cattle  team  and 
two  hands  to  manage  it ;  and  the  work  ordinarily 
was,  after  all,  but  half  executed.  The  improved 
plough  is  generally  propelled  by  two  cattle,  requires 
but  one  man  to  manage  it,  and,  when  properly  gov- 
erned, performs  thorough  work.    Harrows  and  other 


ALTERNATION    OF   CROPS.  31 

implements  have  undergone  a  like  improvement. 

Besides,  other  new  implements,  which  greatly  econ- 
omize the  expense  of  tillage,  are  coming  into  use,  as 
the  roller,  cultivator,  drill-barrow,  &c. ;  so  that  a 
farm  may  now.be  worked  with  half  the  expense  of 
labour  that  it  was  wont  to  be  worked  with  forty  years 
ago,  and  better  worked  withal.  Mind,  likwise,  where 
it  is  put  in  requisition,  and  enlightened  by  science, 
is  doing  ten  times  more  in  aid  of  agricultural  labour 
than  it  formerly  did. 

If  we  revert  to  old,  and,  in  most  cases,  to  present 
practices,  we  shall  perceive  that  thorough  tillage  has 
not  been  sufficiently  attended  to.  Our  implements 
have  been  defective,  and  the  manner  of  using  them 
often  imperfect.  Good  ploughing  is  all-important  to 
good  farming,  and  still  there  is  no  labour  upon  the 
iTarm  that  has  been  more  imperfectly  performed  than 
this  has  generally  been.  Light  soils  seldom  require 
but  a  single  ploughing  for  the  seed,  if  well  executed ; 
but,  if  badly  executed,  two  ploughings  are  too  little. 
Our  implements  are,  however,  daily  improving,  the 
importance  of  good  tillage  is  becoming  more  and 
more  apparent,  and  our  practical  knowledge  is  in- 
creasing. 

IV.    ALTERNATION    OP    CROPS. 

Alternation  of  crops  is  an  essential  requisite  in 
good  farming,  and  forms  a  part  of  it  wherever  it  is 
considered  to  have  arrived  at  any  degree  of  perfec- 
tion. It  is  this  Avhich  gave  to  Flemish  husbandry  a 
pre-eminence  over  that  of  every  other  country,  long 
before  the  new  system  had  obtained  a  footing  in 
Great  Britain.  It  is  principally  this  which  has  con- 
verted the  county  of  Norfolk,  and  other  districts  in 
England,  from  the  poorest  and  least  productive  into 
the  most  wealthy  and  populous  portions  of  that  coun- 
try. It  is  this  alternating  system  which  has  contrib- 
uted, in  a  great  measure,  to  the  astonishing  improve- 
ments recently  made  in  the  agriculture  of  Scotland ; 


32  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

and  it  is  this  which  constitutes  the  pioneer  marks  of 
improved  husbandry  in  our  own  land. 

In  the  preceding  sections  we  have  suggested  the 
importance  and  the  modes  of  mailing  our  lauds  rich 
and  dry,  and  of  subjecting  them  to  good  tillage.  Let 
us  now  inquire  under  what  method  of  management 
they  are  likely  to  make  us  the  largest  returns,  with- 
out diminishing  their  intrinsic  value. 

It  is  palpable  to  every  observing  farmer,  that  the 
old  mode  of  permanently  dividing  our  grounds  into 
meadow,  plough,  and  pasture  lands  is  a  most  wretch- 
ed system  of  exhaustion,  both  to  the  land  and  its  oc- 
cupant. The  tillage  ground  deteriorates  with  the 
scanty  manuring  it  gets,  till  it  ceases  to  make  a  re- 
turn for  the  expense  of  culture,  or  till  it  is  thrown 
into  old  fields  or  commons.  The  meadow-grasses 
run  out,  mosses  and  weeds  come  in,  the  soil  becomes 
too  compact  and  impervious  for  the  ready  admission 
of  the  great  agents  of  vegetable  decomposition  and 
nutrition,  and  the  free  extension  of  the  roots  of  the 
finer  grasses ;  and  as  all  is  carried  off,  and  Uttle  or 
nothing  brought  back,  the  soil  is  annually  becoming 
poorer  and  less  profitable.  The  pasture  is  the  only 
portion  of  such  a  farm  that  is  improving ;  and  even 
in  this,  bushes,  brambles,  and  noxious  weeds  are  too 
often  permitted  to  choke  and  destroy  the  better 
herbage. 

It  is  equally  apparent,  that  we  cannot  take  two  or 
more  arable  crops  of  the  same  kind  from  a  field  in 
successive  seasons  without  a  manifest  falling  off  in 
the  product.  The  reason  of  this  may  be  found  in 
an  immutable  law  of  nature,  Avhich  has  provided  for 
each  species  of  plants  a  specific  food  suited  to  -its 
organization  and  its  wants.  Thus  some  soils,  for 
instance,  will  not  grow  wheat,  although  abounding 
in  the  common  elements  of  fertility,  and  although 
they  will  make  a  profitable  return  in  other  farm  crops, 
in  consequence  of  their  being  deficient  in  the  specific 
food  required  for  the  perfection  of  wheat.    One  fam- 


ALTERNATION    OF    CROPS.  33 

ily  or  species  of  plants  requires  a  different  food 
from  that  which  another  family  or  species  requires ; 
and  it  seems  to  be  also  a  law  of  nature,  that  what 
is  not  essential  to  one  family  or  species  shall  be  left 
in  the  soil,  or  returned  to  it  through  the  excretory 
organs  of  the  growing  crop.  Of  course,  the  specific 
food  for  any  class  or  species  continues  to  accumu- 
late in  the  soil,  the  general  fertility  being  kept  up, 
till  the  return  again  to  the  field  of  this  particular 
crop.  Thus  it  is  supposed  to  require  ten  or  a  dozt  n 
years  for  the  specific  food  of  flax  to  accumulate  suf- 
ficiently for  a  second  crop  after  one  has  been  taken 
from  a  field.  Even  the  specific  food  of  clover  be- 
comes exhausted  by  a  too  frequent  repetition  of  it  in 
the  same  field ;  it  being  found  necessary,  in  Norfolk 
husbandry,  to  substitute  for  it,  in  every  other  course 
of  crops,  other  grass  seeds,  so  that  this  may  not  be 
repeated  oftener  than  once  in  eight  years.  There 
are  exceptions  to  the  rules  of  practice  which  these 
laws  inculcate.  Some  soils  seem  natural  to  wheat, 
others  to  oats  or  grass ;  and  successive  crops  of 
these  are  taken  without  apparent  diminution  of  pro- 
duct. Yet  it  is  better  to  regulate  our  practice  by 
general  laws  than  by  casual  exceptions.  In  the 
cases  noted  as  exceptions,  there  is  probably  so  great 
an  accumulation  of  the  specific  food  of  the  particular 
crop,  that  it  has  not  been  exhausted,  though  it  evident- 
ly must  have  been  diminished.  It  is  in  accordance 
with  the  natural  laws  we  have  noticed  that  the  grass- 
es in  our  meadows  change  ;  that  the  timber  trees  of 
the  forest  alternate — new  species  springing  up  as 
the  old  ones  decay  or  are  cut  down ;  and  it  is  in  ac- 
cordance with  these  laws  that  the  alternation  of 
crops  has  been  adopted  in  all  good  farming. 

To  simplify  and  render  the  subject  still  more  plain, 
the  generality  of  tillage  crops  have  been  grouped 
into  two  classes,  differing  esseptially  in  their  charac- 
ter, culture,  and  exhausting  influence  upon  the  soil. 
These  two  classes  are  denominated  culmiferous  crops 


34  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

and  lezuminnus  crops.  The  first  is  so  named  from 
culm,  the  stalk  or  stem  of  grains  or  grasses,  usually 
jointed  and  hollow,  and  supporting  the  leaves  and 
fructification.  Our  intention  here  is  not  to  embrace 
the  grasses.  Culmiferous  crops  are  tenned  robbers, 
or  exhausters  of  the  soil.  This  class  includes  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  rye,  Indian  com,  tobacco,  cotton,  &c. 
These  are  particularly  exhausting  during  the  process 
of  maturing  their  seeds.  If  cut  green,  or  when  in 
blossom,  they  are  far  less  so.  Leguminous  crops, 
literally,  are  peas,  beans,  and  other  pulse ;  but  here 
the  class  is  intended  to  embrace  all  which  are  consid- 
ered as  ameliorating  or  enriching  crops,  as  potatoes, 
turnips,  carrots,  beets,  cabbages,  and  clover.  These 
latter  are  not  only  less  exhausting  than  the  culmifer- 
ous class,  as  most  of  them  do  not  mature  their  seeds, 
and  all,  on  account  of  their  broad  system  of  leaves, 
draw  more  or  less  nourishment  from  the  atmosphere ; 
but  they  improve  the  condition  of  the  soil,  by  dividing 
and  loosening  it  with  their  tap  and  bulbous  roots. 
For  these  reasons  they  are  called  ameliorating  or 
enriching  crops  ;  and  as  they  generally  receive  ma- 
nure and  drill  culture,  they  are  pecuharly  adapted  to 
enrich  and  fit  the  soil  for  the  culmiferous  class. 

Good  husbandry  enjoins  that  culmiferous  and  le- 
guminous crops  should  alternate,  or  follow  each 
other  in  succession,  except  when  grass  is  made  to 
intervene ;  and  it  matters  little  which  crops  are  se- 
lected from  the  two  classes.  The  good  judgment  of 
the  farmer  may  here  be  exercised  to  determine  which 
are  likely  to  be  to  him  the  most  advantageous.  It 
may  be  proper,  however,  to  note  two  exceptions  to 
this  rule  ;  Indian  corn  may,  under  certain  contingen- 
cies, be  made  to  precede  or  follow  another  grain  crop 
to  advantage,  and  oats  may  sometimes  be  profitably 
sown  as  a  fallow  crop,  to  supersede  a  naked  fallow, 
preparatory  to  a  crop^f  wheat  or  rye.  Some  soils, 
It  is  true,  are  more  favourable  to  one  kind  of  crop 
than  another ;  as,  for  instaoee.  calcareous  clays  and 


ALTERNATION    OF    CROPS.  35 

Strong  loanis  are  better  adapted  to  wheat  than  sili- 
cious  gravels  and  sands ;  while  the  latter  are  better 
fitted  to  cany  Indian  corn,  turnips,  and  clover,  than 
clays.  In  other  respects,  such  as  the  exhaustion  of 
the  ground,  it  is  a  matter  of  little  interest  with  the 
farmer  what  crops  of  each  class  are  chosen  to  al- 
ternate with  each  other. 

Farm  stock  seems  necessarily  to  be  embraced  in 
the  system  of  alternate  husbandry.  Cattle  convert 
the  bulky  products  of  the  farm  into  meats,  butter, 
cheese,  &c.  These  concentrated  products  are  carried 
to  market  at  comparatively  trifling  expense.  Cattle 
also  furnish  labour,  and  manufacture  into  manure 
the  straw,  stalks,  and  other  offal  and  litter  of  the 
farm,  necessary  to  keep  up  its  fertility ;  for  without 
manure  the  soil  will  grow  poor,  and  its  products  an- 
nually diminish.  Manures,  we  repeat,  are  the  main 
source  of  fertility  to  our  soils,  and  the  substantial 
food  of  our  crops.  Our  supply  of  these  will  depend 
on  the  amount  of  stock  we  feed  upon  the  farm  5  and 
the  amount  of  stock  we  can  keep  profitably  will 
again  depend  upon  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  and  the 
consequent  abundance  of  its  products.  So  that  grain 
and  grass  husbandly,  and  cattle  husbandry,  are  recip- 
rocally and  higtly  beneficial  to  each  other.  It  is 
maintained  by  practical  men,  that  grounds  under 
good  tillage  will  yield  as  much  food  for  cattle,  in 
roots,  straw,  &c.,  as  the  same  grounds  would  yield 
in  grass,  thus  leaving  the  grain  as  extra  profit. 

Clover,  which  we  have  classed  with  ameliorating 
crops,  merits  a  farther  and  distinct  notice.  We  find 
that  clover  was  cultivated  at  an  early  period  by  the 
Flemings,  and  constituted  an  important  item  in  their 
excellent  system  of  husbandry.  Its  introduction 
into  Britain  is  of  comparatively  modern  date.  Forty 
years  ago  its  culture  may  be  said  to  have  commenced 
in  the  United  States ;  but  its  .progress  was  slow  till 
within  the  last  few  years  ;  and  even  now,  large  por- 
tions of  our  country  are  practically  ignorant  of  its 


36  AMERICAN  HUSBANDRY. 

improving  and  enriching  qualities.  Its  benefits  have 
been  great  wherever  it  has  been  introduced,  accom- 
panied with  the  use  of  gypsum ;  and  the  two  com- 
bined have  hitlierto  been  the  principal  basis  of  good 
husbandry.  But  their  benefits  are  capable  of  being 
far  more  widely  extended.  We  consider  the  use  of 
clover  for  cattle  food,  great  as  it  is,  but  of  secondary 
importance  to  the  farmer;  its  most  profitable  use 
being  to  feed  crops  and  ameliorate  the  soil.  No 
green  crop  is  so  serviceable  for  the  latter  purposes ; 
and  we  are  satisfied  from  experience,  that  the  practice 
of  habitually  sowing  it  with  small  grains  for  these 
objects,  where  it  is  not  intended  to  stock  with  grass- 
seeds,  is  an  excellent  one  on  all  grounds  adapted  to 
its  growth.  Upon  this  subject  we  quote  as  follows 
from  Chaptal : 

"  Artificial  grass  lands  [constituting  a  part  of  the 
alternating  system,  and  in  contradistinction  to  natu- 
ral and  permanent  grass-lands]  ought  now  to  be  con- 
sidered as  forming  the  basis  of  agriculture.  These 
furnish  fodder,  the  fodder  supports  cattle,  and  the 
cattle  furnish  manure,  labour,  and  all  the  means  ne 
cessary  to  a  thorough  system  of  cultivation."* 

V.  ROOT  CULTURE. 

The  advantage  of  root  culture  to  the  soil  in  the 
alternating  system  has  been  already  briefly  alluded 
to ;  but  this  culture  possesses  higher  claims  to  our 
notice  than  the  bare  influence  it  has  in  ameliorating 
the  soil :  it  constitutes,  otherwise,  a  valuable  source 
of  fertility  to  the  farm  and  of  profit  to  the  farmer. 
It  trebles  the  amount  of  cattle-food,  and  doubles  the 
quantity  of  manure.  Potatoes  constitute  a  great  p>or- 
tion  of  the  bread  and  meat  of  the  Irish  peasantry, 

♦  See  Cbaptal's  Chymistry  applied  to  Agriculture,  embracing 
also  the  most  valuable  parts  of  Sir  H.  Davy's  work  on  the  same 
subject,  and  an  admirable  Treatise  on  the  Use  of  Lime  as  a 
Manure,  by  M.  Puvis,  with  introductory  remarks  by  Professor 
Uenwick,  published  by  Harper  &  Brothers,  1839. 


ROOT    CULTURE.  37 

feed  their  cows,  fatten  their  pigs  and  poultry,  and 
form  an  article  of  foreign  commerce.  The  turnip 
has  long  been  made  an  important  crop  in  German 
husbandry.  The  beet  has  become  so  important  in 
France  as  to  engage  the  attention  of  her  scientific 
men  and  of  the  government  in  extending  its  culture 
The  field  culture  of  the  carrot  has  long  been  prof- 
itably pursued  among  the  f  leniings.  And  as  it  re- 
gards Great  Britain,  whose  example  in  husbandry  is 
deservedly  held  up  for  our  imitation,  her  best  wri- 
ters on  rural  matters,  and  her  best  practical  farmers, 
all  concur  in  saying,  that  her  pre-eminent  success  in 
modern  husbandry  has  been  in  a  great  measure  ow- 
ing to  the  introduction  of  turnips  as  a  field-crop  in 
that  island.  We  will  here  quote  a  passage  from  the 
New  Edinburgh  Encyclopaedia  in  corroboration  of 
what  we  say : 

"  The  introduction  of  turnips  into  the  husbandry 
of  Britain  occasioned  one  of  those  revolutions  in 
rural  art  which  are  constantly  occurring  among  hus- 
bandmen, and,  though  the  revolution  came  on  with 
slow  and  gradual  steps,  yet  it  may  now  be  viewed 
as  completely  and  thoroughly  established.  Before 
the  introduction  of  this  root,  it  was  impossible  to 
cultivate  light  soils  successfully,  or  to  devise  suitable 
rotations  for  cropping  them  with  advantage.  It  was 
likewise  a  difiicult  task  to  support  Uvestock  through 
the  winter  and  spring  months ;  and  as  for  feeding 
and  preparing  cattle  and  sheep  for  market  during 
these  inclement  seasons,  the  practice  was  hardly 
thought  of,  and  still  more  rarely  attempted,  unless 
where  a  full  stock  of  hay  was  provided,  which  only 
happened  in  a  very  few  instances.  The  benefits  de- 
rived from  turnip  husbandry  are,  therefore,  of  great 
magnitude  :  light  soils  are  now  cultivated  with  profit 
and  facility ;  abundance  of  food  is  provided  for  man 
and  beast ;  the  earth  is  turned  to  the  uses  for  which 
it  is  physically  calculated ;  and,  by  being  suitably 
cleaned  with  this  preparatory  crop,  a  bed  is  provided 


310 


r  r  r 


38  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

for  grass  seeds,  wherein  they  flourish  and  prosper 
with  greater  vigour  than  after  any  other  preparation." 

Few  of  our  readers  are  probably  apprized  of  the 
fact,  that  Englisli  beef,  so  highly  extolled,  and  of 
which  John  Bull  so  vauntingly  boasts  (and  perhaps 
no  people  have  better  beeO>  is  mostly  winter-fattened 
upon  turnips  and  straw,  very  little  hay  being  used. 
This  will  account  for  the  high  value  which  the  turnip 
culture  has  obtained  in  Great  Britain. 

All  the  above-named  roots  are  well  adapted  to  our 
soils  and  climate  ;  and  where  their  culture  has  been 
undertaken  with  spirit  and  managed  with  judgment, 
success  has  been  certain.  The  great  objection  to 
this  culture  has  been,  the  labour  which  is  required  to 
secure  these  roots  from  the  frosts  of  winter;  and 
yet  the  labour  and  expense  required  for  this  purpose 
are  perhaps  no  greater  than  we  expend  in  securing 
our  grain  and  forage,  if  they  are  as  great.  Where 
cellars  are  not  at  command  or  not  adequate,  these 
roots  may  all  be  securely  preserved  in  pits  in  dry 
situations,  due  precaution  being  had  to  covering  and 
ventilation.  It  is  the  novelty  of  the  labour,  rather 
than  the  amount,  and  a  want  of  practical  knowledge 
and  confidence  of  success,  which  intimidate  and  de- 
ter us.  We  do  save  our  potatoes,  and  we  can  save 
other  roots  in  like  manner.  Assuming  the  average 
product  of  hay  at  a  ton  and  a  half  to  two  tons  per 
acre,  and  of  beets  and  ruta  baga  at  600  bushels  ;  and 
allowing  a  bushel  and  a  half  of  the  latter  (90  lbs.)  to 
be  equal,  for  farm-stock,  to  twenty  poimds  of  hay, 
an  acre  of  the  roots  will  go  as  far  in  the  economy 
of  feeding  as  nearly  three  acres  of  meadow,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  tops,  which  will  go  far  to  repay  the 
extra  expense  of  cultivating  the  roots ;  while  the 
ground  in  the  one  case  is  ameliorated  and  improved, 
and  in  the  other  impoverished.  These  roots,  besides, 
may  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  grain  for  working 
cattle  and  for  pigs.  The  three  acres  of  grass  gives 
less  than  1)000  pounds  to  the  manure-yard,  while 


FALLOW    CROPS.  39 

the  one  acre  of  ruta  baga  or  beets  gives  36,000,  or 
four  times  as  much  as  three  acres  of  grass-land. 

VI.     SUBSTITUTION    OF   FALLOW    CROPS    FOR   NAKED    FAL- 
LOWS. 

Fallowing  is  the  mode  of  preparing  land  (general- 
ly greensward)  by  ploughing  it  a  considerable  time 
before  it  is  finally  ploughed  for  wheat  and  rye,  to  be 
sown  in  autumn.  A  naked  fallow  is  such  as  receives 
no  intermediate  crop  between  the  first  ploughing  and 
seeding  for  the  main  crop  ;  a  fallow  crop  is  one  that 
intervenes  between  these  two  processes.  In  Eng- 
land, fallows  are  generally  broken  up  in  autumn,  re- 
ceive repeated  ploughings  during  the  ensuing  sum- 
mer, and  are  sown  in  autumn,  or  cropped  with  turn- 
ips, and  sown  the  third  year  with  barley.  In  the 
United  States,  naked  fallows  are  more  often  broken 
up  in  June  or  July,  receive  repeated  ploughings,  and 
are  sown  in  September.  For  fallow  crops,  old 
swards  are  broken  up  in  autumn,  and  clover  lays  in 
the  spring ;  the  first  receive  one  or  more  ploughings 
in  the  spring,  and,  immediately  after,  the  seeds  which 
are  to  constitute  the  fallow  crop.  Clover  lays  re- 
ceive the  fallow  crop  upon  the  first  furrow,  or  with 
but  one  ploughing.  Naked  fallows,  in  England,  oc- 
cupy the  ground  a  year ;  and  if  they  are  sown  with 
tares  or  rye,  as  they  often  are,  to  be  fed  off  in  the 
spring,  they  are  termed  bastard  fallow's.  With  us, 
fallow  grounds  lay  idle  but  part  of  a  season. 

There  is  no  agricultural  writer  of  note,  and  very 
few  good  farmers,  who  now  contend  for  the  propri- 
ety of  naked  fallows,  except  on  stiff  clays  or  wet 
grounds,  which  can  only  be  worked  in  the  summer, 
and  this  for  the  single  purpose  of  cleaning  such  soils 
from  root-weeds.  We  subjoin  two  or  three  quota- 
tions in  corroboration  of  this  fact ; 

"  Fallowing  was  necessary  as  long  as  grains  only, 
all  of  which  exhaust  the  soil,  were  cultivated ;  du- 
ring the  intervals  of  tillimj  the  fields,  a  variety  of 


40  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

herbs  grew  on  them,  which  offered  food  for  animals, 
and  the  roots  of  which,  buried  in  the  soil  by  the 
plough,  furnished  a  great  part  of  tlie  necessaiy  ma- 
nure. But  at  this  day,  when  wc  have  succeeded  ia 
establishing  the  cultivation  of  a  great  variety  of 
roots  and  artificial  grasses,  the  system  of  fallowing 
can  be  no  longer  supported  by  the  shadow  of  a  good 
reason.  The  ease  with  which  fodder  may  be  culti- 
vated, furnishes  the  means  of  supporting  an  in- 
creased number  of  animals  ;  these  in  their  turn  sup- 
ply manure  and  labour ;  and  the  farmer  is  no  longer 
under  the  necessity  of  allowing  his  lands  to  be  fal- 
low."— Chaptal. 

"  It  is  already  acknowledged,  that  it  is  only  upon 
wet  soils,  or,  in  other  words,  upon  lands  unfit  for  the 
turnip  husbandry,  that  a  plain  summer  fallow  is  ne 
cessary." — New  Edinb.  Encyc. 

"  As  there  is  only  one  good  reason  for  fallowing, 
namely,  to  destroy  weeds  ;  and  as  this  can  be  done 
full  as  well  by  fallow  crops,  that  is,  by  crops  that 
require  frequent  hoeing  and  cleaning  during  their 
growth,  no  fallowing  ought  to  be  permitted  in  a  good 
system  of  agriculture." — T.  Cooper. 

We  have  quoted  in  the  last  number  of  the  fourth 
volume  of  the  Cultivator,  the  practical  example  of 
the  late  Chancellor  Livingston,  showing  an  increased 
profit  of  nearly  two  hundred  per  cent,  resulting 
from  substituting  fallow  crops  for  naked  fallows,  be- 
sides an  increase  of  cattle-food,  upon  one  hundred 
acres  of  arable  land,  of  sixty-five  tons,  and  the  ma- 
nure from  sixty-five  cattle  which  this  extra  food 
would  keep.  In  page  88  and  104  of  the  same  vol- 
ume we  have  given  Greig  and  Beatson's  systems  of 
managing  clay  farms,  in  which  naked  fallows  are 
dispensed  with,  and  the  profits  doubled  by  substitu- 
ting fallow  crops.  These  evidences  might  be  great- 
ly multiplied  were  it  necessary ;  but  we  have  so 
many  examples  and  illustrations  in  every  quarter  of 
our  country,  that  he  who  will  may  profit  by  his  own 


FALLOW  CROPS. CONCLUSIONS.      41 

observation  and  inquiry.  The  expense  of  the  sum- 
mer fallows  may  be  saved,  and  a  very  valuable  ex- 
tra crop  obtained,  by  the  new  mode  of  practice. 

In  regard  to  what  are  the  best  fallow  crops,  much 
will  depend  upon  the  soil.  Upon  stiff  clays,  oats  and 
peas  are  rec«mmended,  which,  although  not  cleans- 
ing crops,  succeed  well  upon  an  undecomposed  sod. 
Potatoes  also  answer  well ;  and  if  they  do  not  ripen 
early  enough  for  winter  grain,  they  prepare  the 
ground  remarkably  well  for  spring  wheat.  Clays 
should  be  broken  up  in  autumn  if  intended  for  a  fal- 
low crop,  tl.'at  the  frost  may  break  up  and  pulverize 
the  soil,  and  that  the  decomposition  of  the  sod  may 
commence  earlier  in  the  spring.  The  late  John  Lor- 
rain,  of  Pennsylvania,  who  was  an  excellent  practi- 
cal farmer  as  well  as  a  g'lntleman  of  science,  rec- 
ommended that,  in  ploughing  for  grain  after  a  fallow 
crop,  the  furrow  should  be  superficial,  so  as  not  to 
turn  up  the  vegetable  matter  of  the  sod,  but  to  leave 
it  where  the  roots  of  the  ensuing  crop  will  most  need 
it.  Upon  light  soils,  Indian  corn,  beans,  peas,  pota- 
toes, tuniips,  or  other  roots,  constitute  good  fallow 
crops,  particularly  if  preparatory  to  spring  wheat 
and  barley.** 

We  have  now  gone  over  the  ground  we  proposed 
to  examine.  We  have  endeavoured  to  explain  what 
we  mean  by  the  Nexo  System  of  Husbandry ;  to  de- 
velop its  principles,  and  to  show  why  and  where- 
fore it  is  superior  to  the  old  or  common  system. 
We  have,  we  think,  demonstrated, 

1.  That  the  fertility  of  the  farm  may  be  kept  up 
and  augmented  by  the  manures  it  can  be  made  to 
furnish ; 

2.  That  the  condition  of  the  farm  may  lie  much  im- 
proved by  thorough  draining ; 

.  3.  That  the  capacities  of  the  farm  can  be  fully  de- 
veloped only  by  good  tillage  ; 
4.  That  the  profits  of  the  farm  are  materially  f  lug- 


42  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

mented  by  alternating  crops,  and  a  system  of  mixed 
husbandry ; 

5.  That  the  cattle-food  and  manures  of  the  farm,  the 
main  sources  of  fertility  and  profit,  rhay  be  greatly 
increased  by  the  cultivation  of  roots  ; 

6.  That  the  labours  of  the  farm  may  be  econo- 
mized, and  its  products  farther  increased,  by  substi- 
tuting fallow  crops  for  naked  fallows. 

And,  finally,  that,  were  these  several  improvements 
generally  introduced  into  our  agricultural  practice, 
they  would  render  our  farmers  more  independent, 
bring  industry  into  better  repute,  and  essentially  pro- 
mote the  prosperity  and  happiness  of  all  classes  of 
society. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  most  of  our  impoverished 
farms  may,  under  the  system  of  management  we 
have  been  describing,  and  with  the  auxiliary  and 
available  aid  of  lime,  marl,  gypsum,  swamp-earth, 
ashes,  &c.,  be  progressively  improved  in  fertility, 
and  rendered  productive  and  profitable.  We  have 
the  strongest  grounds  for  this  belief.  The  like  has 
been  done  in  Great  Britain,  in  the  Netherlands,  in 
Germany,  in  France.  Worn-out  lands  have  there 
been  renovated  and  rendered  very  valuable.  They 
have  been  so  in  the  United  States.  They  are  now 
undergoing  this  improvement  in  the  valley  of  the 
Hudson.  The  partial  introduction  of  the  New  Hus- 
bandry has,  within  a  few  years,  doubled  the  surplus 
agricultural  products  of  most  of  the  counties  be- 
tween Albany  and  New- York ;  and  yet  the  improve- 
ment has  there  been  but  begun. 

The  same  management  which  our  subject  sug- 
gests for  the  renovation  of  old  lands,  will  perpetuate 
the  fertility  of  those  which  have  been  newly  brought 
under  culture.  Although  the  soils  of  the  great  sec- 
ondary formation  of  the  West  will  not  so  soon  be- 
.come  impoverished  as  those  of  primitive  and  transi- 
tion formations  ;  and  although  fertility  may  be  more 
readily  restored  to  them  when  they  have  become  ex- 


RULES  AND  SUGGESTIONS  IN  HUSBANDRY.    43 

hausted,  yet  the  same  general  laws  govern  in  all. 
Deterioration  will  progress  in  all  soils  which  are 
cropped,  unless  there  is  returned  to  them,  in  the 
form  of  manure,  some  equivalent  for  what  is  being 
constantly  carried  off. 

RULES    AND    SUGGESTIONS   IN   HUSBANDRT. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  give  some  rules  and  sug- 
gestions in  husbandry,  of  general  application,  to  en- 
able farmers,  and  particularly  novices  in  the  art,  to 
judge  of  the  character  and  qualities  of  their  soil,  its 
adaptation  to  particular  crops,  the  causes  of  its  de- 
terioration, and  the  means  of  perpetuating  its  fertil- 
ity ;  or,  if  worn-out  or  impoverished,  of  restoring  it 
to  its  pristine  vigour.  The  facts  and  suggestions 
which  we  shall  give  are  the  results  of  our  reading 
and  our  practice ;  and  though  they  may  not  in  all 
cases  prove  to  be  sound,  we  think  that  in  the  main 
they  will  be  found  to  be  so. 

The  essential  elements  of  a  good  soil  are  sand, 
clay,  lime,  and  vegetable  or  organic  remains.  Mag- 
nesia, iron,  and  other  matters  are  often  found  blend- 
ed with  the  preceding ;  but,  in  general,  they  are  not 
considered  as  exercising  a  great  influence  on  its  fer- 
tility, except  they  exist  in  more  than  ordinary  pro- 
portions. 

2.  The  presence  of  sand,  clay,  and  vegetable  mat- 
ter in  a  soil  is  deemed  essential  to  all  crops ;  and 
lime,  in  some  of  its  forms,  is  considered  indispensa- 
ble to  many  crops,  and  particularly  to  wheat. 

3.  The  presence  of  sand  and  clay  is  readily  de- 
tected by  the  experienced  eye ;  that  of  vegetable 
matter  by  the  consistency  and  colour  of  the  soil ; 
and  that  of  carbonate  of  lime  by  drying  a  portion 
of  soil,  and  pouring  upon  it  some  acid  having  a 
stronger  affinity  for  the  base  than  the  carbonic  acid, 
as  muriatic  acid,  or  even  strong  vinegar :  if  it  con- 
tains  lime,  effervescence  will  ensue  ;  and  the  propor- 
tion may  be  ascertained  by  very  simple  modes  of 
analysis 


44  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

4.  Sand  is  the  most  essential  of  the  earthy  ingre- 
dients of  a  soil,  and  generally  most  preponderates ; 
though  where  it  exceeds  eighty  per  cent,  the  soil  is 
virtually  barren.  Clay  is  next  in  proportion;  but 
where  it  is  in  excess,  the  soil  becomes  stubborn,  is 
hard  to  be  worked,  and  more  or  less  unproductive. 
Lime  exists  in  the  smallest  proportion ;  and  from 
two  to  ten  per  cent,  of  this  in  the  upper  or  tillable 
stratum  is  deemed  sufficient  for  all  the  purposes  of 
profitable  husbandry.  When  in  excess,  it  induces 
barrenness.  A  calcareous  soU  is  considered  condu- 
cive to  the  health  of  the  neighbourhood.  Organic 
matter,  that  is,  vegetable  or  animal,  is  indispensable 
in  a  soil.  It  is  the  food  of  plants.  Yet  even  this 
is  frequently  found  in  too  great  quantity,  as  in  peat 
earth,  which  is  often  infertile  till  mixed  with  earthy 
ingredients,  or  brought  in  contact  with  fermenting 
materials. 

6.  When  an  excess  of  sand,  clay,  lime,  or  vege- 
table matter  is  discovered  to  exist,  the  fault  may  be 
remedied  by  an  admixture  of  the  deficient  element 
or  elements.  When  one  of  the  elements  is  found 
wanting,  it  may  be  supplied  by  art.  Thus  a  load  of 
claj'  upon  an  arid  sand,  or  a  load  of  sand  upon  a  stub- 
born clay,  or  a  few  bushels  of  lime,  or  marl,  or  ashes 
upon  a  soil  deficient  in  calcareous  earth,  are  often  of 
more  ultimate  service  than  a  load  of  barnyard  dung. 
But, 

6.  Both  dung  and  lime  are  consumed  by  the  grow- 
ing crops ;  and,  if  the  crops  are  carried  off  the  land, 
it  must  be  periodically  replenished  with  the  same 
substances,  or  it  will  often  become  deficient  in  these 
material  elements  of  fertility. 

7.  The  sand  and  clay  of  the  soil  may  be  likened 
in  their  offices  to  the  stomach  of  the  animal ;  the 
lime  and  salts  to  the  gastric  juices,  which  assist  to 
dissolve  the  food  in  the  animal  stomach,  and  to  the 
condiments,  as  salt,  pepper,  &c.,  which  we  employ 
to  stimulate  and  aid  the  organs  and  process  of  di- 


RULES   AND    SUGGESTIONS    IN  HUSBANDRY.    45 

gestion ;  and  the  organic  matter  in  the  soil  to  the 
food  itself,  which  feeds  and  nourishes  the  animal 
system. 

8.  If  the  crops  grown  upon  a  soil  are  permitted  to 
rot  upon  and  return  to  it  again,  its  fertility  is  not 
impaired,  but  improved.  Nothing  is  lost,  but  some- 
thing gained,  from  the  fertilizing  influence  of  the  at- 
mosphere. But  when  all  the  crop  is  carried  off  and 
nothing  returned,  deterioration  must  take  place  :  the 
vegetable  food  must  undergo  a  continued  diminution. 
This  is  a  plain  exposition  of  the  cause  of  lands  wear- 
ing out ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  it  explains  the  neces- 
sity of  applying  manures  to  keep  up  their  fertility. 

U.  All  the  elements  of  a  good  soil  being  present, 
its  fertility  and  consequent  profit  will  in  a  measure 
depend  upon  its  exemption  from  an  excess  of  water, 
which,  like  fire,  is  a  good  servant,  but  a  bad  master. 
This  excess  may  arise  from  spouts  and  springs  burst- 
ing up  from  below,  or  from  surface  waters,  where 
the  ground  is  level  or  nearly  so,  settling  and  repo- 
sing upon  a  tenacious  subsoil,  or  from  waters  fiovir 
ing  from  higher  grounds.  Hence  the  importance  ol 
draining.  We  do  not  know  of  any  farm  crop  which 
tJirives  well  upon  a  soil  that  is  habitually  wet,  either 
upon  its  surface  or  within  the  natural  range  of  its 
roots.  Water-meadows  and  rice  profit  by  periodical 
floodings ;  but  even  these  are  injured  by  habitual 
wetness. 

10.  Fertility  depends  much,  also,  upon  the  quality 
and  properties  of  the  subsoil.  If  this  be  defective 
or  come  too  near  the  surface,  its  faults  may  be  cor- 
rected, and  the  tilth  deepened,  by  bringing  it  up,  in 
small  portions  at  a  time,  with  the  plough,  to  the  meli- 
orating influence  of  the  atmosphere,  and  by  blending 
it  with  the  upper  stratum. 

11.  If  a  soil,  under  proper  management,  doe?  not 
return  good  crops,  or  if  the  crops  are  found  annually 
to  diminish,  it  is  a  sure  indication  that  there  is  a  de- 
ficiency in  one  of  the  primaiy  elements  of  a  good 


46  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY 

soil,  that  the  subsoil  has  a  malign  influence,  or  that 
there  is  an  excess  of  water.  It  is  the  province  of 
ihc  manager  to  search  out  the  cause  of  the  evil,  and 
to  apply  the  proper  remedy,  be  it  lime,  manure, 
deeper  drafnage,  or  deeper  tilth. 

12.  Grain-crops  are  the  greatest  exhausters  of  the 
fertiUty  of  soils,  on  account  of  their  narrow  system 
of  leaves,  and  the  great  quantity  of  nutriment  they 
extract  from  it  to  mature  their  seeds.  The  remark 
extends  to  the  narrow-leaved  grasses,  converted  into 
hay,  when  they  are  permitted  to  ripen  their  seeds  in 
the  field. 

13.  Indian  com,  tobacco,  and  beans  may  be  em- 
braced in  the  second  class  of  exhausting  crops ;  for 
although  they  have  broad  leaves,  and  are  supposed 
to  derive  much  of  their  nourishment  from  the  atnao- 
sphere,  they  are,  nevertheless,  gross  feeders,  and  are 
bulky  crops,  and  leave  very  little  upon  the  soil  to 
compensate  for  what  they  take  from  it.  But  great 
economy  in  feeding  these  crops  may  be  effected  by 
applying  to  them  the  long  manure  of  the  yard  and 
stables,  instead  of  summer-yarding  it,  as  many  farm- 
ers are  wont  to  do.  These  crops  will  feed  upon  what 
is  otherwise  lost  in  the  yard,  the  gaseous  matters ; 
and  these  afford  exactly  the  food  that  the  crops 
named  want,  and  at  the  very  time  they  want  it. 

14.  Roots  come  next  in  the  order  of  exhausting 
crops  ;  but  they  compensate,  in  a  measure,  for  what 
they  take  from  the  soil,  by  the  meliorating  influence 
they  have  upon  it,  in  dividing,  pulverizing,  and  free 
ing  it  from  weeds,  by  means  of  their  roots  and  the 
culture  they  demand. 

15.  Green  crops,  that  is,  clover,  buckwheat,  rye, 
oats,  &c.,  ploughed  under  as  food  for  plants,  are  en- 
riching crops,  and  powerful  auxiliaries  to  the  fold 
yard,  but  they  are  too  seldom  resorted  to  for  this 
l>urpose. 

16.  Depasturing  with  cattle,  and  particularly  with 
sheep,  enriches  a  soil.    According  to  Van  Tbaer,  it 


AULES  AND   SUGGESTIONS   IN  HUSBANDRY.    4T 

adds  20  per  cent,  annually  to  the  fertility  of  an  ordi- 
nary soil,  though  probably  for  a  limited  period.  This 
results  from  the  fact  that  the  crop  is  returned  to  the 
soil  in  the  droppings  and  urine  of  the  animals  which 
graze  it.  • 

17.  Lime  and  clay  are  essential  in  a  wheat  soil. 
Indian  corn  delights  in  a  rich,  dry  sandy  loam.  Tur- 
nips excel  on  dry  sandy  soils.  Rye  is  impatient  of 
wet.  Barley  does  best  on  a  clay  loam,  as  do  beets, 
carrots,  and  peas.  Oats  and  potatoes  find  a  conge- 
nial bed  in  cool  moist  grounds,  though  for  the  lattei 
the  surface  stratum  should  be  light  or  mellow.  Of 
the  grasses,  the  tap-rooted,  as  clover,  lucerne,  &c., 
require  a  deep  soil,  permeable  to  their  long  roots,  and 
free  from  water;  the  fibrous-rooted,  as  the  tall-oat, 
orchard,  &c.,  thrive  upon  soils  that  are  shallower; 
and  the  rough-stalked  meadow,  red-top,  bent,  and 
some  of  the  festuca  family,  are  congenial  to,  and 
often  natural  in,  moist  or  swampy  grounds.  Tht 
timothy,  or  meadow  cat's-tail,  the  main  dependance 
for  winter  forage  in  the  Northern  states,  adapts  its 
roots,  it  is  said,  to  its  location ;  being  fibrous-rooted 
upon  dry,  and  bulbous-rooted  upon  moist  grounds ; 
and,  therefore,  adapted  to  any  situation. 

18.  Where  arable  and  mixed  husbandry  prevail, 
the  natural  fertility  of  a  farm  cannot  be  kept  up  or 
increased  from  the  resources  of  the  farm  stock  with- 
out resort  to  an  alternation  or  change  of  crops.  Al- 
though the  diminution  of  fertiUty  may  be  impercep- 
tible in  some  extraordinary  cases,  and  although 
some  soils  seem  naturally  and  peculiarly  adapted  to 
certain  crops,  yet,  where  the  same  crop  is  grown  on 
one  piece  of  ground  in  successive  years,  deterioration 
as  certainly  goes  on  as  the  sun  shines  by  day. 
Whether,  according  to  the  modern  theory  of  certain 
European  philosophers  of  high  repute,  the  excre 
mentitious  matter  thrown  into  the  soil  by  a  growing 
crop  is  poisonous  to  its  species ;  or  whether,  as  we 
maintain,  each  species  requires  and  exhausts,  oi  par 


4&  AML.IICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

tially  exTiau3ts,  a  specific  food  in  the  soil,  suited  to 
its  particular  wants,  we  will  not  now  slop  to  inquire ; 
but  it  is  a  fact  established  by  general  experience, 
that  an  annual  change  of  crops  upon  a  field,  while 
under  tillage,  tends  very  much  to  economize  its  fer- 
tility, and  to  increase  the  profits  of  the  labour  be- 
stowed upon  it.     Hence, 

19.  It  has  been  laid  down  as  a  sound  rule  in  farm- 
ing, that  two  white,  or  grain,  or  culmiferous  crops 
should  not  be  made  to  succeed  each  other  in  the 
same  field ;  but  that  each  of  these  should  be  alterna- 
ted with,  or  followed  by,  a  green,  a  grass,  a  root,  o:  a 
jeguminous  crop. 

20.  Where  the  soil  of  a  farm  will  admit  of  it,  a 
good  course  is  to  alternate,  1,  roots  or  Indian  corn, 
with  long  manure,  upon  the  sod ;  2,  grain,  with 
grass-seeds ;  3,  grass  for  two  years.  The  poorer 
the  soil,  the  oftener  should  it  be  returned  to  grass, 
particularly  to  clover  and  pasture. 

21.  Geologists  refer  to  three  distinct  formations 
as  constituting  the  crust  of  the  earth  :  the  primitive, 
containing  little  or  no  lime  or  organic  remains  ;  the 
transition,  containing  lime  and  organic  remains ;  and 
the  secondary,  abounding  extensively  in  both  these 
elements  of  fertility.  Their  natural  relative /er/i7i7y 
is  in  the  reverse  order  in  which  they  are  named,  the 
secondary  being  the  best,  and  embracing  most  of  the 
great  basin  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  country  drain- 
ed by  its  tributary  streams.  We  say  nothing  of 
alluvial  formations  deposited  by  the  ccean  and 
streams.  These  partake  of  the  character  of  the 
country  from  which  they  are  brought,  and  are  more 
or  less  ferlde,  according  to  the  fertility  of  the  dis- 
tricts from  which  their  soil  is  derived,  and  the  force 
of  the  currents  by  which  theii  deposites  have  been 
made ;  a  rapid  current  leaving  only  the  coarser  or 
heavier  materials,  while  the  lighter  and  richer  mat- 
ters do  not  subside  until  the  current  beconrt'es  slow 
and  levs  agitated.  A  sluggish  current,  therefore,  de 
posites  the  richest  soil. 


RULES  AND  SUGGESTIONS  IN  HUSBANDRY.    49 

29.  The  three  great  formations  which  we  have 
nieiitionod  possess,  it  is  well  known,  characteristics 
diftercnt  from  each  other.  They  grow,  naturally, 
many  plants  peculiar  to  each,  and  they  are  adapted 
to  different  branches  of  husbandry,  or  to  different 
farm-crops.  The  primitive  will  not  generally  grow 
good  wheat,  but  is  suited  to  grass,  oats,  potatoes, 
&c.  The  transition  is  adapted  to  natural  grasses, 
ami  to  most  of  the  arable  crops,  particularly  to  the 
cereal  class ;  and  the  secondary  to  the  cultivated 
grasses,  to  roots,  and  particularly  to  wheat.* 

23.  There  are  other  circumstances  in  regard  to 
the  location  of  a  farm  demanding  the  consideration 
of  the  master,  which  refer  to  latitude  and  elevation. 
Plants  have  their  natural  zone  or  climate,  beyond 
which  they  do  not  grow  or  thrive  but  imperfectly. 
There  is  a  difference  in  every  degree,  or  sixty  miles 
of  latitude  upon  tide-water,  of  five  or  six  days  in  the 
forwardness  of  natural  vegetation  in  the  spring,  and 
nearly  a  like  difference  in  the  blighting  indications 
of  autumn.  But  what  is  of  equal  importance,  but 
less  generally  regarded,  is  the  difference  in  climate 
produced  by  altitude.     Three  hundred  feet  of  eleva- 

*  An  able  writer  in  the  Edinburgh  Quarterly  Journal  of 
Agriculture,  in  reference  to  these  formations,  terms  the  primi- 
tive, which,  it  seems,  comprises  the  most  elevated  lands  in  Scot- 
land, the  region  of  heath  and  coarse  herbage;  the  transition, 
the  natural  region  of  the  grasses;  and  thfi  secondary,  the  region 
of  cultivated  grasses,  and  particularly  adapted  to  arable  and  al- 
ternate husbandry.  He  assigns  to  each  a  particular  and  dis- 
tinct breed  of  cattle.  To  the  first,  or  higher  region,  a  thick- 
haired,  small,  hardy  breed;  to  the  second,  or  middle  region,  those 
of  larger  size  ;  and  to  the  third,  or  lower  region,  those  that  are 
most  sensitive  to  cold,  gross  feeders,  and  that  acquire  the  great- 
est weight  He  goes  on  to  show,  from  numerous  examples,  that 
these  several  breeds  are  the  most  profitable  in  the  various  dis- 
tricts assigned  them  ;  and  that  they  are  manifestly  improved,  in 
most  cases,  by  a  judicious  cross  with  the  improved  short-horns. 
There  is  much  good  sense  in  the  writer's  rennarks ;  and,  al- 
though the  descriptions  of  the  three  formations  as  to  elevation 
does  not  fully  apply  in  the  United  States,  the  facts  we  have 
coi^ied  afToril  useful  suggestions  to  the  American  grazier. 
I. — ^E 


60  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

tion  is  considered  equal  to  one  degree  of  latitude  in 
its  influence  upon  temperature.  Hence  it  does  not 
follow,  that  because  a  crop  will  thrive  and  ripen  in 
a  given  latitude  upon  tide-water,  it  will  thrive  and 
ripen  equally  well  in  the  same  latitude  at  a  higher 
elevation.  On  the  contrary,  to  be  better  understood, 
we  say  that,  other  things  being  alike,  the  climate  on 
tide-water,  in  latitude  42°,  is  similar  to  that  of  a 
place  elevated  three  hundred  feet  above  tide-water 
in  latitude  41°,  or  of  a  place  nine  hundred  feet  above 
tide- water  in  latitude  39° ;  so  that  the  table-land  of 
Mexico,  in  latitude  16',  at  an  elevation  of  seven 
thousand  and  eight  hundred  feet  above  the  ocean, 
should  possess  about  the  same  mean  temperature, 
and  produce  the  same  natural  and  artificial  growth, 
as  Kingston  upon  the  Hudson,  though  the  extremes, 
both  of  heat  and  cold,  are  probably  greater  at  the 
northern  than  they  are    at  the   southern  point.* 

*  "  All  the  western  part  of  the  inlendancy  of  Vera  Cruz," 
says  Humboldt,  in  his  New  Spain,  "  forms  the  declivity  of  iho 
Cordilleras  of  Anahuac.  In  the  space  of  a  day,  the  inhabitanta 
descend  from  the  regions  of  eternal  snow  to  the  plains  in  the  vi- 
cinity of  the  sea,  where  the  most  suffocating  heat  prevails.  The 
admirable  order  with  which  different  tribes  of  vegetables  rise 
one  above  another,  by  strata,  as  it  were,  is  nowhere  more  per- 
ceptible than  in  ascending  from  the  port  of  Vera  Cruz  to  the  ta- 
ole-land  of  Perote.  We  see  there  the  physiognomy  of  the  coun- 
try, the  aspect  of  the  sky,  the  form  of  plants,  the  nguies  of  ani- 
mals, the  manners  of  the  inhabitants,  and  the  kind  of  cultivation 
followed  by  them,  assume  a  different  appearance  at  every  step 
of  our  progress. 

"  As  we  ascend,  nature  appears  gradually  less  animated,  the 
beauty  of  the  vegetable  forms  dimmishes,  the  shoots  l)ecome 
less  succulent,  and  the  flowers  less  coloured.  The  aspect  of 
the  Mexican  oak  quiets  the  alarms  of  travellers  newly  landed  at 
Vera  Cruz.  Its  presence  demonstrates  to  him  that  he  has  left 
behind  him  the  zone,  so  justly  dreaded  by  the  people  of  the 
North,  under  which  the  yellow  fever  exercises  its  ravages  in 
New  Spain.  This  inferior  limit  of  oaks  warns  the  colonist 
who  inhabits  the  central  tableland  how  far  he  ii  ay  descend  to- 
wards the  coast,  without  dread  of  the  mortal  disease  of  the  vom 
ito.  Forests  of  liquid  amber,  near  Xalapa,  announce,  by  the 
freshness  of  their  verdure,  that  this  is  the  elevation  at  which 


RULES  AND  SUGGESTIONS  IN  HUSBANDRY.    51 

Tliese  data  are  assumed  from  recollection,  and  may 
not  be  precisely  correct. 

24.  The  means  of  preserving  and  of  augmenting 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  are  sufficiently  indicated  in 
the  preceding  suggestions.  They  consist  mainly  in 
manuring,  draining,  the  admixture  of  earthy  mate- 
rials, and  thff  alternation  of  crops. 

25.  Stable  and  fold-yard  dung  is  most  profitably 
applied  in  an  unfermented  or  partially  fermented 
state,  and  to  hoed  and  autumn-ripening  crops.  Fer- 
mentation diminishes  the  fertilizing  properties  of  ma- 
nure. If  this  fermentation  takes  place  in  the  soil, 
the  gases,  the  volatile  portion  w^hich  first  escapes 
from  the  putrifying  mass,  are  retained  in  the  mould, 
and  serve  to  feed  the  crop.  If  fermentation  takes 
place  in  the  yard  or  upon  the  surface,  the  gases  are 
wasted,  and  the  dung  undergoes  farther  loss  from 
the  rains  which  ordinarily  leach  it.  Long  manure 
should  be  spread  broadcast,  and  well  buried  by  the 
plough. 

26.  Short  manure,  or  that  which  has  undergone 
fermentation,  is  most  beneficial  when  harrowed  in 
upon  arable  lands,  or  spread  upon  the  surface  of 
grass-grounds. 

27.  Old  meadows  may  be  kept  in  a  productive 

the  clouds,  suspended  over  the  ocean,  come  in  contact  with  the 
basaltic  summits  of  the  Cordillera.  A  little  higher,  near  La 
Bandarila,  the  nutritive  fruit  of  the  banana-tree  comes  no  longer 
to  maturity.  In  this  foggy  and  cold  region,  therefore,  want 
spurs  on  the  Indian  to  labour,  and  excites  his  industry.  At  the 
height  of  San  Miguel,  pines  begin  to  mingle  with  the  oaks, 
which  are  found  by  the  traveller  as  high  as  the  elevated  plains 
of  I'erote,  where  he  beholds  the  delightful  aspect  of  fields  sown 
with  wheat.  Eight  hundred  metres  higher  (two  thousand  and 
six  hundred  feet),  the  coldness  of  the  climate  will  no  longer  ad- 
mit of  the  vegetation  of  oaks ;  and  pines  alone  cover  the  rock, 
whose  summits  enter  the  zone  of  eternal  snow.  Thus,  in  a  few 
hours,  the  naturalist,  in  this  miraculous  country,  ascend?  the 
whole  scale  of  vegetation,  from  the  heliconia  and  the  banana 
plant,  whose  glossy  leaves  swell  out  into  extraf  rdinary  dimei 
eioiis,  to  the  stunted  parachyma  of  the  resinous  trees." 


62  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

State,  in  ordinary  cases,  by  a  tr/ennial  top-dressing 
with  manure  or  compost ;  or  may  be  renovated  and 
restored  to  a  productive  state  by  the  modes  we  have 
already  recommended  in  the  Cultivator. 

28.  Composts  are  economical  when  made  to  ab- 
sorb fertilizing  liquids  which  would  otherwise  be 
wasted  ;  or  to  decompose  inert  vegetable  matter,  as 
peat,  earth,  &c. 

29.  Lime,  gypsum,  marl,  and  ashes  are  powerful 
auxiliaries  when  applied  to  proper  soils  or  suitable 
crops.  Observation  and  experience  will  be  the  best 
guides  in  their  application.  'I'hey  should  all  be  ajv 
plied  to  the  surface,  or  but  superficially  covered. 

30.  All  vegetable  and  animal  matters  constitute 
the  food  of  plants  when  they  are  rendered  soluble, 
or  capable  of  being  dissolved  in  the  water  of  the 
soil. 

31.  Bone-dust,  horn-shavings,  poudrette,  woollen 
rags,  urine,  and  animal  carbon  or  burned  bones,  are 
concentrated  manures,  and  should  be  used  sparingly 
and  with  great  care  upon  or  near  the  surface  of  the 
soil.  Pigeon  and  hen's  dung  partake  much  of  the 
character  of  the  preceding,  and  require  precaution 
in  their  use.  We  think  the  best  mode  of  applying 
the  two  first  named  is  to  mix  ashes  with  them  or 
long  manure,  just  before  they  are  put  upon  the  soil, 
whereby  they  are  brought  speedily  into  a  state  of 
fermentation  and  decomposition. 

32.  The  best  guards  against  drought  are  keeping 
the  soil  deep,  rich,  clean,  and  mellow  on  the  surface. 

33.  The  more  cattle  that  are  well  kept  upon  a 
farm,  the  more  manure ;  the  more  manure  there  is 
applied,  the  greater  the  product  and  the  profit,  and 
the  greater  the  means  of  sustaining  an  increased 
stock  of  animals  upon  it.  All  of  these  advantages 
are  increased  when  root-crops  are  made  to  eater 
largely  into  the  system  of  culture. 


OLD    AND    NEW     HUSBANDRY.  63 


COMPARATIVE  PROFITS  OF  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  HUSBANDRY. 

[We  add,  at  the  close  of  this  chapter,  the  follow- 
ing statement,  given  in  the  London  Farmer's  Maga- 
zine from  the  pen  of  an  eminent  English  agricul- 
turist, as  exhibiting  some  of  the  reasons  that  induce 
the  adoption  there  of  the  New  System,  and  the  com- 
parative profits  resulting.  That  more  labour  on  a 
given  number  of  acres  is  required  under  the  new 
system  than  under  the  old,  is  apparent ;  but  the  in- 
crease in  productiveness  is  in  a  still  greater  ratio, 
and  so  are  the  ultimate  profits.  By  keeping  but  few 
acres  under  cropping,  and  doing  the  work  of  those 
few  acres  in  the  best  manner,  the  farmer  gains  some 
important  advantages ;  he  can  retain  more  land  in 
grass,  and,  of  course,  can  raise  more  stock  ;  he  is  not 
wearing  out  his  soils  by  improvident  culture  ;  he  re- 
ceives a  far  greater  interest  on  the  capital  invested 
in  his  farming  operations ;  and  when,  in  the  course 
of  rotation,  his  fields  are  seeded  to  grass,  they  are 
clean,  in  good  tilth,  and  will  not  only  produce  great 
crops  of  pasture  or  grass,  but  be  in  fine  order  for 
their  course  in  the  production  of  grain  crops.] 

It  may  be  proper  to  premise  that  my  farm  consists 
of  about  200  acres,  comprising  30  of  wood,  42  of 
pasture,  and  the  rest  arable.  Of  the  arable,  85  acres 
are  of  good  mi.\ed  soil,  well  adapted  to  turnips  and 
barley,  but  not  considered  equal  in  value  to  the  best 
wheat  land ;  the  remainder  consists  partly  of  a  hun- 
gry gravel  and  partly  of  clay,  of  very  inferior  quali  - 
ty.  It  is  cultivated  on  the  Norfolk,  or  four-course 
system. 


64  AMKRICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

1.  I  diligently  collect  litter  of  every  kind,  sea- 
weed, furze,  fern,  leaves  of  trees,  &c.,  for  bedding 
my  yards,  in  addition  to  the  straw  grown  on  the 
land.  In  the  last  tw'elvc  months  I  have  brought  in 
about  50  wagon-loads  of  those  materials  :  each  wa^- 
on  load  gives  employment  to  about  three  men  for 
a  day  ;  the  total,  therefore,  being  150  days. 

2.  This  increase  of  litter  would  avail  little  or  no- 
thing if  I  did  not  keep  an  extra  number  of  live-stock ; 
for  1  observe  that  many  farmers  do  not  even  make 
their  straw  into  good  muck.  I  therefore  fat  about 
40  hogs  and  four  or  five  head  of  homed  cattle  every 
winter ;  enough,  in  short,  to  consume  half  my  Swed- 
ish turnips,  which  are  carried  into  the  yards  for  this 
purpose.  The  drawing,  topping,  and  carting,  togeth- 
er with  the  time  occupied  in  looking  after  the  stock, 
may  be  estimated  at  one  man's  employment  during 
the  winter  months,  equal  to  150  days. 

3.  The  removal  of  one  half  the  turnips  would  in- 
jure the  succeeding  barley  crop  if  I  did  not  lay  on, 
at  the  time  of  sowing  the  turnips,  an  extra  quantity 
of  manure,  say  25  single  horse  cart-loads  per  acre, 
about  10  loads  more  than  the  usual  allowance:  This 
I  am  enabled  to  do,  partly  by  the  great  quantity  of  lit- 
ter in  my  yards,  partly  by  placing  a  bottom  of  earth 
or  chalk  under  every  dung-heap,  and  a  thin  covering 
of  the  same  materials  over  the  top.  The  practice 
of  carting  all  my  dung  twice,  first  from  the  yards  to 
bottoms  prepared  in  the  fields,  and  then  on  the  land 
when  wanted  for  use,  of  course  employs  many  hands, 
as  well  as  the  turning  the  composts,  and  mixing  the 
materials  together.  I  believe  I  do  not  overrate  the 
number  of  cart-loads  transported  annually  on  my 
farm  at  2400 ;  whereas  on  the  same  number  of  acres, 
a  farmer  who  moved  his  dung  only  once.  carr>-ing  it 
immediately  from  the  yard,  at  the  rate  of  10  loads 
per  acre  for  turnips,  and  the  same  for  wheat,  would 
transport  only  600  cart-loads  annually.  The  extra 
1800  loads  may  give  about  1 12  days  employment,  and 


OLD  AND   NEW  HUSBANDRY  55 

the  turning  of  the  compost  about  20  more  ;  making 
together  132  days. 

4.  I  have  introduced  this  year  the  Norfolk  practice 
of  dibbhng  wheat.  This  occupies  two  men  and  six 
children  for  30  days,  at  the  rate  of  half  an  acre  per 
man  per  day.  Computing  the  six  children  equal  to 
one  man,  the  dibbUng  gives  extra  employment  of  90 
days.  The  expense  is  paid  in  the  saving  of  seed,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  increased  produce,  which  is  es- 
timated by  the  best  Norfolk  farmers  at  a  sack  per 
acre.* 

5.  Extra  weeding,  throwing  ditches,  draining,  &c., 
may  occupy  about  80  days. 

Let  us  now  recapitulate — 

Collecting  litter     .     .     .     .     .     .150  days 

Feeding  stock  in  yards    .     .     .     .150 

Carting  earth  and  dung   ....  132 

Dibbling  wheat 90 

Extra  weeding,  draining,  &c.    .    .    80 

Total 602 

At  300  working  days  in  the  year,  this  is  equal  to 
two  labourers  extra,  winter  and  summer,  employed 
on  a  farm  containing  only  about  120  acres  of  arable 
land. 

It  is  not  easy  to  estimate  Avith  precision  the  in- 
creased amount  of  produce  which  a  farmer  may  ex- 
pect to  obtain  in  consequence  of  such  an  increased 
outlay  in  labour ;  the  less  so  as  that  increased  produce 
does  not  make  itself  felt  the  first,  second,  or  third 
year  to  the  full  extent :  indeed,  I  have  heard  an  in- 
telligent farmer  say,  that  he  has  observed  a  progres- 
sive improvement  in  his  land  during  no  less  than 
twenty  years,  from  persisting  in  a  system  of  high 
cultivation.  I  beg  leave  to  introduce  here  the  esti- 
mate of  Von  Thaer  : 

*  A  sack  is  four  bushels. 


56  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

On  a  farm  of  913  acres  of  good  barley  land. 

Uikitrr  the  old  ■ytlani,  Uaiicr  <ht  iDipnoH  or 

two  crop*  and  a  £«Uoir.  ultrriMt*  •)i'eni« 

Prodoce  in  cattle      .  /2lu— SlOUb  {1249— 86,>)<id  20 

Produce  in  grain       .     »U4—   4291  20  2030-  9.74'1 

GroBS  produce      .    .    1104-  5299  20  3279-15,739  20 

Expensen  of  cul- 
tivation   ....    537—  2577  60  1051—  5,044  30 

Nett  produce       .    .    567—  2721  60  2228—10,694  40 

The  last  line  comprises  rent,  profit,  interest  on 
capital,  tithes  and  taxes  of  any  description,  the  ob- 
ject being  simply  to  show  the  comparative  results  of 
the  two  systems  of  cultivation.  The  system  is  not 
founded  on  speculative  views,  but  on  extensive  and 
accurate  observation  during  a  long  series  of  years 
by  a  man  well  acquainted  with  the  practical  business 
of  agriculture.  Indeed,  I  may  observe  in  passing, 
that  there  is  no  work  in  the  English  language  to  be 
compared  with  Von  Thaer's,  so  far  as  my  Icnowl- 
edge  extends.  I  am  not  surprised  at  the  low  esti- 
ination  of  works  on  agriculture  among  practical 
farmers.  Instead  of  containing,  as  they  ought  to 
do,  a  digest  of  all  that  is  necessary  to  be  known  by 
a  single  competent  hand,  such  works  consist,  for  the 
most  part,  of  loose  collections  of  suggestions,  spec- 
ulations, experiments,  and  observations ;  correct 
and  incorrect,  authenticated  and  unauthenticatcd ; 
thrown  together  apparently  almost  at  random,  with- 
out order  or  discrimination. 

It  will  be  seen,  on  comparing  Von  Thaer's  num- 
bers, that  his  estimate  of  the  expenses  and  produce 
on  the  two  systems  of  cultivation  respectivclj  is  in 
round  numbers  as  follows  :  On  the  improved  system 
the  expenses  of  cultivation  is  doulde  ;  tlic  gross  pro- 
duce is  triple;  the  nett  produce  is  quadruple. 

This  statement,  however,  being  expressed  in  so 
general  and  abstract  a  form,  and  resting,  as  it  does, 
on  the  authority  of  an  unknown  author,  is  not  likely, 


OLD  AND  NEW  HUSBANDRY.  57 

I  fear,  to  weigh  much  with  the  majority  of  farmers. 
Let  ine  then  endeavour  to  bring  the  question  home 
to  them  by  a  statement  of  a  different  kind.  I  sup- 
pose it  will  hardly  be  disputed  that,  by  means  of  the 
system  of  high  cultivation  which  1  have  described, 
a  farmer  may  be  expected  to  get  per  acre  at  least 
one  sack  of  wheat,  one  of  barley,  a  quarter  of  a  ton 
of  clover  hay,  and  three  tons  of  turnips  additional 
Let  us  compute  the  value  of  these  items  : 

4  bushels  of  wheat  at  56s.    .     .  Z.  1    8  0  —  $6  72 

4  bushels  of  barley  at  30sv  .     .    0  15  0  —  3  60 

1-4  ton  of  hay  at  3Z 0  15  0  —  3  60 

3  tons  of  turnips  at  5s.     ...    0  15  0  —  3  60 

i)l.3  13  0     —     4)$17  62 
Average  per  acre  0  18  3      —  4  38 

This  on  120  acres  amounts  to  M09  10  0      —      $525  60 

The  labour  of  the  extra 

hands  through  the  piece 

at  11  shillings  per  week, 

amounts  to 1.57  04  0    —        $274  56 

I  charge  nothing  for  horse 

labour,  since   the  cart- 
ing of  dung,  Utter,  &c., 

is  performed    at    times 

when  the   team  would 

otherwise  be    standing 

still.     But  as  there  is 

some    additional   wear 

and   tear   of  carts  and 

wagons,  let  us  estimate 

this  at 10  00  0    —  48  00 

67  04  0 322  56 


Extra  profit  arising  to  the  occupier       Z.42  06  0     —      $203  04 

The  result  of  this  computation,  if  correct,  ought 
surely  to  encourage  every  farmer  to  be  liberal  in  his 
expenditure  in  the  article  of  labour  ;  and  if  not  cor- 
rect, I  hope  some  one  will  point  out  where  I  am 
wrong.  The  actual  produce  of  the  present  year,  in 
my  own  case,  is  as  follows :  my  wheat,  so  far  as 
yet  threshed,  averages  from  nine  to  twelve  sacks  per 


68  AMERICAN   HDSBANDRT. 

acre ;  the  last  is  the  produce  of  a  new  variety,  which 
proves  very  prolific.  My  barley  has  yielded,  on  an 
average,  twelve  sacks  per  acre.  I  have,  however, 
one  field  of  barley  not  yet  threshed,  from  ivhich  I  do 
not  expect  to  get  more  than  nine  sacks  per  acre,  the 
soil  being  a  poor  gravel.  The  general  character  of 
the  land  I  have  already  described. 


CHAPTER  II 

ox   THE   NECESSITY   AND  MEANS   OP  IMPROVIKO  OCR  HU8< 
BANDRY. 

Report  by  Judge  Buel. 

We  cannot  be  too  often  reminded  of  the  contrast 
which  exists  between  good  and  bad  husbandry;  nor 
too  often  admonished  to  search  into  the  causes  of 
this  difference,  and  to  apply  the  needful  remedies. 
The  difference  does  not  consist  alone  in  a  single 
crop  or  a  single  season  :  the  soil  in  the  one  case  is 
becoming  more  and  more  exhausted  of  fertility,  and 
losing  its  intrinsic  value  ;  while  in  the  other  its  rel- 
ative worth  is  on  the  increase,  and  the  difference  in 
product  is  consequently  annually  increasing. 

We  will  illustrate  our  proposition  by  a  comparison 
between  American  and  Scotch  husbandry  now  and 
f»»xty  years  ago.  Sixty  years  ago  the  agriculture  of 
Scotland  was  in  a  wretchedly  low  and  unproductive 
condition,  while  the  products  of  our  yet  unex- 
hausted soil  were  abundant.  But  sixty  years  ago 
the  spirit  of  improvement  fell  upon  Scotland ;  her 
.•gricultural  society  was  instituted,  and  commenced 
its  useful  labours,  and  was  soon  after  greatly  aided 
by  the  organization  of  a  national  board  of  agricul- 
ture i  agricultural  surveys  were  made  and  published 


MEANS  OF  IMPROVING  OUR  HUSBANDRY        59 

,}f  every  county  ;  the  best  practices  of  every  district 
thus  became  known  to  the  whole  nation  ;  men  of 
fortune  and  science  turned  their  attention  to  the  en- 
couragement and  improvement  of  this  parent  art  c 
and  the  consequence  has  been,  that  a  wonderful  and 
salutary  change  has  come  over  that  land,  fraught 
with  abundance  and  with  blessings.  The  value  of 
land 'has  in  consequence  been  enhanced  three  and 
four  fold,  and  its  products  have  been  increased  in  a 
proportionate  ratio.  "  In  fertile  districts,"  says  Sir 
John  Sinclair,  "  and  in  propitious  seasons,  the  farm- 
er may  confidently  expect  to  reap  from'  32  to  40 
bushels  of  wheat ;  from  42  to  50  bushels  of  barley  ; 
from  52  to  64  bushels  of  oats,  and  from  28  to  32 
bushels  of  beans  per  statute  acre.  As  to  green 
crops,  30  tons  of  turnips,  3  tons  of  clover,  and  from 
8  to  10  tons  of  potatoes  per  statute  acre,  may  confi- 
dently be  relied  on.  In  the  most  favourable  seasons 
the  crops  are  still  more  abundant." 

Now  what  has  been  our  progress  in  agriculture 
during  the  last  sixty^ears  1  Has  it  not  been  retro- 
grade 1  We  have,  to  be  sure,  obtained  abundant 
crops  from  our  rich  virgin  soils,  and  when  these,  un- 
der bad  management,  have  become  exhausted,  we 
have  occupied  and  exhausted  others  in  their  turn. 
But  what  is  the  condition  now  of  the  lands  that  were 
cultivated  by  our  fathers  half  a  century  ago  1  Do 
they  produce  the  average  crops  which  are  given 
above  as  the  products  of  Scottish  husbandry,  under 
all  our  favourable  circumstances  even  of  climate  and 
of  civil  liberty  1  Are  our  crops  half  as  large  1  Nay, 
are  they  more  than  a  third  as  large  1  Do  we  get 
from  our  old  districts  an  average  of  more  than  10  to 
13  bushels  of  wheat,  of  14  to  17  of  barley,  or  of  17 
to  21  bushels  of  oats  per  acre  1  At  the  close  of  the 
last  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  the 
surplus  products  of  our  Northern  agriculture  were  ex. 
ported  to  an  immense  amount.    Now*  we  import  the 

*  In  1S38-39. 


60  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

agricultural  products  of  Europe  to  avert  the  evils  of 
famine !  The  cause  of  this  remarkable  difference  in 
the  surplus  products  of  the  soil  may  be  partially 
owing  to  unpropitious  seasons,  but  is  mainly  to  be 
sought  for  in  the  neglect  of  our  agriculture,  both  by 
the  people  and  the  government.  In  Europe,  gov- 
ernments and  influential  individuals  have  bestowed 
spirited  attention  upon  the  improvement  of  agricul- 
ture, as  constituting  the  basis  of  national  prosperity 
and  independence.  While  with  us,  improvement  in 
husbandry  has  been  considered  a  minor  concern ;  it 
has  at  least  not  received  the  consideration  of  the 
statesman  or  the  political  economist.  Party  politics, 
and  local  or  personal  schemes  of  aggrandizement, 
have  so  much  engrossed  the  attention  of  the  men 
who  ought  to  lead  in  these  matters,  and  who  do  lead 
in  every  other  pubhc  improvement,  that  the  humble 
claims  of  agriculture  have  failed  to  attract  their  no- 
tice or  engage  their  attention,  although  it  constitutes 
the  base  which  supports  the  whole  superstructure 
of  civilized  society.  If  we  MTOuld  preserve  the  su- 
perstructure with  its  embellishments,  we  must  take 
care  to  make  strong  and  permanent  this  foundation. 
Our  farmers,  too,  seem  generally  indifferent  or  spir- 
itless in  regard  to  the  general  improvement  of  our 
agriculture,  either  because  they  mistake  their  duty 
and  true  interest,  or  that,  under  the  influence  of  a 
strange  fatuity,  they  fear  they  shall  sink  as  others 
rise. 

We  should  consider  our  soil  as  we  do  our  free  in- 
stitutions— a  patrimonial  trust,  to  be  handed  down  un- 
impaired to  posterity ;  to  be  used,  but  not  abused. 
Both  are  more  easily  impaired  than  they  are  resto- 
red ;  and  both  belong,  in  their  pristine  vigour  and 
purity,  as  much  to  our  children  as  they  do  to  us.  In 
some  of  the  once  populous  and  fertile  districts  of  the 
old  (/ontinent,  the  productiveness  of  *he  soil  has 
been  recklessly  wasted  by  men,  whose  descendants 
have  consequently  become  poor  and  wretched,  and 


MEANJ   OF  IMPROVING  OITR  HUSBANDRY.     61 

tneir  country  almost  a  desert.  In  other  portions, 
where  the  fertiUty  of  the  soil  has  been  sedulously 
preserved  for  ages,  the  population  has  continued 
prosperous,  weaiihy,  and  happy. 

It  is  undeniably  true,  that  our  general  system  o^■ 
farming  is  bad  ;  that,  in  most  parts  of  our  country, 
the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil  has  been  gradually 
diminishing,  and  its  products  becoming  less ;  that 
the  evil  is  increasing ;  and  that,  without  a  radical 
reform,  we  shall,  in  the  North,  not  only  cease  to 
have  surplus  products  to  pay  for  the  foreign  com- 
modities which  long  habit  has  rendered  necessary 
to  our  convenience,  but  lack  a  supply  even  of  bread- 
stuffs  for  our  own  population.  'I'o  what  degrading 
dependance  will  this  course  of  things  in  a  few  years 
reduce  us,  unless  prompt  and  efficient  means  are 
adopted  to  check  our  downhill  course  in  the  pro- 
ducts of  agricultural  labour!  With  the  finest  coun- 
try in  the  world,  a  population  almost  entirely  agri- 
cultural, exempt  from  the  enormous  burdens,  as 
tithes,  rents,  and  poor-rates,  which  press  like  an  in- 
cubus upon  the  agricultural  labour  of  Europe,  and 
dependant  on  foreign  supplies  for  the  means  of  sub- 
sistence ! !  The  idea  is  humiliating,  is  alarming,  to 
all  who  look  to  the  ultimate  prosperity  and  happi- 
ness of  our  country.  Our  maritime  commerce  de- 
pends upon  contingencies  which  we  can  neither 
foresee  nor  control.  Venice  and  Genoa,  and  Por- 
tugal and  Spain,  have  each  in  turn  had  their  "  days 
of  commercial  prosperity  ;"  they  successively  rose 
to  opulence  and  power,  and  successively  sunk,  the 
victims  of  corruption,  into  effeminacy,  vice,  and  des- 
potism. Manufactures  too,  as  we  have  had  abun- 
dant cause  to  know,  are  but  a  precarious  depeudasice 
for  national  greatness.  Commerce  and  manufac- 
tures are  the  shaft  and  capital  of  the  social  column, 
of  which  agriculture  constitutes  the  base  ;  and  with- 
out this  base  they  can  no  more  withstand  the  shocks 
and  revolutions  of  time,  than  could  the  short-lived 


62  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

glory  of  the  nations  we  have  namoH.  Great  Britain 
now  wiolds  the  trident,  anrl  the  wurld  is  mad€  tribu- 
tary to  her  workshops.  lUit,  j^reat  as  she  is  in 
commerce  and  in  manulucturcs,  these  are  consider- 
ed secondary  and  auxiliar}'  to  her  agricultural  great- 
ness. Land  is  the  basis  of  her  national  wealth  ;  it 
is  the  surplus  marketable  produce  of  her  soil,  says 
Sir  John  Sinclair,  that  is  the  source  of  all  her  polit- 
ical power,  and  of  the  personal  enjoyment  of  her 
citizens ;  and  there  is  no  source  of  domestic  indus- 
trj'  or  of  foreign  commerce,  he  adds,  that  can  in 
any  respect  be  put  in  competition  with  the  improved 
cultivation  of  her  soil.  The  agriculture  of  Great 
Britain  employs  but  two  thirds  of  her  population ; 
and  yet  the  surplus  products  of  her  soil  suffice  to 
feed  and  support  the  other  third,  and  to  assist  in 
supplying  our  deficiencies.*  Our  population  is  at 
least  five  sixths  agricultural,  yet  during  the  last  two 
years  we  have  had  to  import  about  ten  millions 
worth  of  breadstufTs  to  supply  our  deficiency  in  this 
first  element  of  life  ;  and  even  in  the  most  favoura- 
ble seasons,  the  exports  of  the  surplus  products  of 
our  northern  soil  have  been  merely  nominal. 

We  will  state  one  fact,  derived  from  official  docu- 
ments, which  will  demonstrate,  beyond  the  power  of 
refutation,  our  downward  course  in  this  great  branch 
of  national  industry.  It  is  this :  the  average  in- 
crease of  breadstuff's,  passing  from  our  canals  to 
tide  waters,  from  the  great  grain  district  of  the  West 
(the  Flanders  of  America),  has  amounted  to  three 

♦  The  reader  must  not  infer  from  this  that  Great  Britain  has 
ordinarily  a  surplus  of  agricultural  produce  beyond  her  own 
wants.  In  favourable  seasons  she  produces  about  enough  to 
feed  her  population  ;  but  is  obliged  to  import  breadstufTs.  some' 
times  to  a  large  amount,  when  there  is  a  partial  failure  of  crops 
That  Great  Britain,  with  her  limited  territory  and  dense  popu 
lation,  should  occasionally  have  to  do  this,  must  be  expected 
but  the  circumstances  of  our  own  country  are  so  entirely  dif- 
ferent, that  it  must  be  owing  mainly  to  bad  husbandry  that  we 
•bould  ever  be  subject  to  such  necessity. 


MEANS  OF  IMPROVING   OUR  HUSBANDRY.      63 

and  three  quarters  per  cent.,  while  our  population 
has  increased  in  the  ratio  of  six  per  cent,  per  annum ! 
If  such  has  been  the  deficiency  in  our  grain-grow- 
ing, new  and  fertile  districts,  to  meet  the  wants  of 
our  increasing  population,  how  much  greater  must* 
that  deficiency  have  been  in  the  exhausted  soils  of 
old  settled  districts  1  Many  portions  of  our  country, 
which  once  exported  grain,  have,  by  bad  husbandry, 
become  dependant  upon  the  comparatively  new  set- 
tlements, or  upon  foreign  supplies,  for  this  indispen- 
sable necessary  of  life.  This  remark  will  apply  to 
almost  our  entire  Atlantic  border.  Will  any  math- 
ematician tell  us  how  long  it  will  require,  according 
to  the  disproportionate  ratio  of  increase  between 
our  population  and  our  means  of  subsistence,  to  re- 
duce us  to  a  state  of  absolute  dependance,  or  to  a 
state  of  national  want  and  famine  ? 

It  is  apparent,  from  the  examples  of  mipiovement 
which  are  witnessed  in  many  districts  of  our  coun- 
try, that  we  CAN  improve  the  general  condition  of 
our  agriculture  if  we  will  adopt  a  wise  and  ener- 
getic policy.  Nay,  we  have  a  demonstration  of  the 
practicability  of  doing  it  in  the  now  palpable  benefits 
of  the  law  to  improve  our  agriculture,  passed  in  18 19. 
That  law  involved  an  expenditure  of  40  or  $50,000, 
and  expired  in  1824.  It  was  found  fault  with  by 
many  from  political  motives,  and  by  more  from  a 
spirit  of  envy  in  those  who  either  had  not  the  en- 
terprise or  the  talent  to  compete  successfully  for 
the  rewards  which  it  gave  to  industry  and  skill. 
And  besides,  the  law,  in  some  instances,  was  badly, 
we  may  almost  say  corruptly,  executed.  Yet,  under 
all  the  disadvantages  of  want  of  organization,  of  in- 
experience and  abuse,  has  not  that  expenditure  been 
like  manure  spread  upon  our  soiU  Did  not  that 
law  excite  a  laudable  emulation  among  the  whole 
farming  community,  and  bring  into  action  more  skill, 
more  industry,  and  more  improvements  Has  it  not 
been  instrumental  in  greatly  improving  our  farnj 


64  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

Stock,  our  farm  implements,  and  modes  of  culture  \ 
Has  it  failed  to  increase  the  farm  products  of  any  one 
county,  of  a  respectable  population,  to  the  amount 
of  the  total  expenditure  t  Or  has  it  failed  to  return 
ftto  the  treasury,  every  year,  the  gross  amount  of 
that  expenditure,  in  the  form  of  canal  tolls  upon  the 
increased  productions  of  the  soill  We  do  not  put 
these  questions  because  we  have  any  doubts  in  the 
matter,  but  to  bring  the  subject  home  to  the  calm 
and  deliberate  consideration  of  those  reflecting  men 
whose  duty  and  interest  it  is  to  scan,  to  judge,  and 
to  act  wisely  upon  a  question  of  momentous  impor- 
tance to  our  country.  If  these  men  think  with  us, 
that  the  law  of  1819  has  amply  remunerated  the 
state  for  its  expenditure  on  the  increased  tolls  on 
our  canals,  and  that  it  has  added  millions  to  the 
value  of  our  annual  agricultural  products,  they  wiU 
not  hesitate  to  renew  that  policy  which  has  been 
productive  of  so  much  public  good.  The  improve- 
ments of  the  last  eighteen  years  might  have  been 
respectable  without  the  aid  of  that  law ;  but  it  was 
that  which  gave  a  new  impetus  to  improvement. 
The  fairs  and  exhibitions  which  it  produced  taught 
our  farmers  that  there  was  yet  much  to  learn  in 
their  business ;  that  they  could  improve  in  their 
farm  stock,  in  their  farm  implements,  in  they-  seeds, 
and  in  their  modes  of  culture ;  and  many  of  them 
resolutely  determined  to  profit,  and  did  profit,  by  the 
lessons  of  instniction  which  they  then  imbibed.  And 
when  the  spirit  of  improvement  has  begun,  it  is  like 
civil  revolution ;  it  seldom  retrogrades.  One  im- 
provenient  leads  to  others  as  naturally  as  the  active 
mind,  having  attained  to  one  branch  of  knowledge, 
aspires  to  other  and  higher  branches.  Our  Southern 
brethren  say  we  are  in  advance  of  them  greatly  in 
agricultural  improvement.  If  this  is  so,  we  owe  it 
to  the  law  that  was  passed,  upon  Gov.  Clinton's  rec- 
ommendation, in  1819. 
It  requires  no  science,  and  very  little  art,  to  weai 


MEANS  OF  IMPROVING  OUR  HUSBANDRY.      65 

out  and  exhaust  the  most  fertile  soil.  The  process 
is  simple :  take  from  it  all  you  caii  by  close  crop- 
ping for  a  few  contiimous  years,  and  return  to  it 
nothing  in  the  form  of  maimre,  and  the  work  is 
done,  or  far  advanced.  In  this  business  we  have 
shown  ourselves  to  be  no  mean  adepts.  But  it  does 
require  science,  and  art,  and  perseverance,  and  cap- 
ital, to  restore  fertility  to  a  soil  which  has  become 
exhausted.  'I'his  we  hav»  not  yet  sufficiently  learn- 
ed, but  it  should  be  our  next  lesson  ;  and  the  sooner 
we  begin,  the  sooner  shall  we  profit  by  it. 

Agricultural  improvement  is  slowly  developed,  at 
least  to  superficial  observers.  It  requires  years  to 
renovate  the  fertility  of  an  exhausted  soil,  to  im- 
prove the  stock  of  a  farm,  or  to  realize  the  benefits 
which  result  from  draining,  from  alternating  crops, 
and  from  root  culture.  We  are  much  in  the  habit 
of  calculating  upon  immediate  gains,  without  looking 
to  remote  and  ultimate  benefits.  We  saw  not  the 
change  when  the  law  of  1819  was  in  force,  because 
its  benefits  were  but  partially  developed.  But  we 
now  hear  the  remark  from  hundreds,  that  the  ap- 
propriation of  1819  was  one  of  the  most  beneficial 
to  the  state  that  has  ever  been  made  by  the  Legisla- 
ture. The  popular  vote  of  the  state  would  never 
have  sanctioned  the  construction  of  the  Erie  and 
Champlain  canals  ;  and  yet  the  wisdom  of  the  meas- 
ure is  now  sanctioned  by  an  enlightened  world.  Al- 
though the  construction  of  these  canals  may  have 
operated  prejudicially  to  some  individuals  and  dis- 
tricts, yet  the  benefits  which  have  resulted  to  the 
whole  state  have  amply  compensated  for  any  person- 
al inconvenience  or  injury  they  may  have  caused. 
So  with  the  law  to  encourage  agriculture  ;  many  did 
not  foresee  its  benefits,  who  now  acknowledge  that 
they  are  palpable  and  important.  We  must  judge 
of  public  measures  by  their  fruits ;  and,  before  we 
are  competent  to  do  this,  the  seed  must  germinate, 
the  plant  grow  and  blossom,  and  the  fruit  mature. 
I.— F 


66  AMERICAN    UUSBANDRT. 

This  is  particularly  the  case  in  all  measures  to  im. 
prove  agriculture.  Ii  is  l)ie  province  of  wisdom  to 
look  ahead ;  to  sow  the  useful  seed,  and  wait  the 
coming  harvest  for  the  recompense.  We  must  sow 
in  the  spring,  and  cultivate  well  in  the  summer,  if 
we  would  gather  an  abundant  harvest  in  autumn. 
We  may,  too,  almost  lay  it  down  as  a  maxim,  that 

THE  MENTAL  AND  .MORAL  CONDITION  OF  AN  AGRICULTURAL 
DISTUICT  IS  IN  THE  RATIO  OF  ITS  IMPROVEMENT  IN  HUS- 
BANDRY. To  borrow  the  spirit  of  a  political  saying, 
as  goes  agriculture,  so  goes  the  state.  There  is  cer- 
tainly much  truth  in  the  remark,  that  where  the 
farming  is  slovenly  and  bad,  ignorance,  indolence, 
and  vice  most  generally  abound ;  and  that,  where 
agricultural  improvement  is  most  advanced,  the  pop- 
ulation are  most  industrious,  most  intelligent,  and 
most  moral.  Knowledge  begets  a  love  of  knowl- 
edge ;  and  when  a  man  has  acquired  enough  of  it  to 
convince  him  of  its  utility  in  his  business,  he  con- 
siders it  a  part  of  his  farming  capital,  and  he  is  anx- 
ious to  increase  his  stock  of  it  as  the  readiest  means 
of  improving  his  condition  in  hfe,  independent  of  the 
mental  pleasures  which  it  imparts.  But,  not  having 
acquired  the  requisite  degree  to  enable  him  to  ap- 
preciate its  value,  or  to  show  him  the  defects  of  his 
system  of  management,  he  plods  on,  with  listless 
indifference,  in  the  ways  of  his  fathers ;  and  as  great 
success  nowadays  seldom  rewards  such  labours, 
he  too  often  becomes  spiritless  and  dissatisfied,  and 
relaxes  into  indolence,  of  which  vice  is  too  frequent- 
ly the  concomitant. 

Under  the  existing  state  of  things,  how  does  it  be- 
come us  to  act  1  What  are  we  to  do  1  Shall  we 
fold  our  arms,  leave  agricultu»"e  to  decline  farther 
or  to  shift  for  itself,  and  depend  upon  more  propi- 
tious seasons  and  other  Providential  interpositions 
to  supply  our  wants  ?  Shall  we  depend  upon  the 
cotton,  rice,  and  tobacco  of  the  South,  which  consti- 
tute our  almost  entire  exports,  to  pay  for  the  foreign 


MEANS  OF  IMPROVING   OUR  HUSBANDRY.      67 

commodities  which  wc  consurne  in  the  North  ^  Or 
shall  we,  animated  by  the  enterprise  and  love  of  in- 
dependence which  werq  wont  to  animate  our  fathers, 
take  it  resolutely  in  hand  to  provide  abundantly  for 
ourselves,  by  encouraging  and  enlightening  agricul- 
ture, elevating  its  character,  and  stimulating  it  to 
new  efforts  by  suitable  honours  and  rewards  1 

As  regards  the  means  of  improvement,  much  has 
been  done  and  much  is  doing  by  the  agricultural 

f)eriodicals  of  the  day.  The  first  of  these  was  estab- 
ishcd  at  Baltimore,  by  John  S.  Skinner,  in  1819; 
and  we  can  now  enumerate  nearly  twenty  that  are 
diffusing  light,  awakening  enterprise,  and  inciting  to 
industry  in  every  section  of  our  country.  Probably 
one  hundred  thousand  farmers  are  now  deriving  in- 
struction and  improving  their  practice  from  the  pe- 
rusal of  these  journals  ;  and  it  is  not  extravagant  to 
say,  that  the  benefits  they  are  dispensing  to  the  na- 
tion are  equivalent  to  millions  of  dollars  every  year. 
But  what  is  one  hundred  thousand  compared  to  the 
gross  agricultural  population  of  the  union  i  and  how 
much  greater  would  be  their  benefits  if  these  jour- 
nals had  access  to  every  farmhouse,  or  even  to  every 
schoolhouse,  in  the  state?  Besides  giving  much 
that  is  useful  in  the  science,  or  the  first  principles 
of  husbandry,  they  are  continually  advising  their 
readers  of  every  improvement  which  is  being  made 
in  the  practical  operations  of  the  farm ;  of  new  seeds 
and  plants^  and  the  mode  of  cultivating  them,  and  of 
every  improvement  in  labour-saving  machines. 

By  concentrating,  as  it  were  in  a  focus,  the  prac- 
tical knowledge  of  the  country,  and  then  scattering 
ifc,  like  the  solar  rays,  into  every  comer  of  the  land, 
to  fructify  the  earth,  thus  rendering  it  subservieivt  to 
the  benefit  of  all,  some  individuals  have  been  enabled 
r.o  obtain  a  clear  profit  of  fifty,  one  hundred,  and  even 
one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  on  an  acre,  who  had 
never  obtained  a  profit  of  thirty  dollars  before.  And 
the  benefits  of  these  splendid  results  are  not  confined 


OS  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

to  the  individuals  who  effected  tliera:  they  are  her- 
alded in  the  agricultural  journals  ;  become  known  all 
over  the  country ;  and  every  new  and  successful  effort 
at  improvement  soon  has  its  fifty,  its  hundred,  atid 
its  thousand  imitators.  Suppose,  for  instance,  what 
we  hope  will  yet  prove  tnie,  that  an  individual  sliould 
discover  an  effectual  preventive  of  the  ravages  of 
the  Hessian  fly  or  gram-worm — instead  of  only  l>en- 
efiting  him  and  a  few  neighbours,  or  becoming  grad- 
ually known,  as  in  olden  times,  the  knowledge  of  it 
would  now  be  spread  in  a  few  days,  by  the  agricultu- 
ral periodicals,  into  every  corner  of  the  land,  and  the 
advantages  of  the  discovery  would  thus  amount  to 
millions  in  a  single  year.  So  with  every  other  im- 
provement in  husbandry.  It  is  not  the  province,  nor 
is  it  the  study  of  news  journals  and  literary  editors 
to  deal  extensively  in  agricultural  concerns.  They 
seldom  publish  even  the  incidental  notices  which 
are  designed  to  subserve  the  interests  of  husbandry 
without  a  special  request,  and  a  fee  in  the  bargain, 
as  though  thei/  had  no  personal  interest  in  the  prog- 
ress of  agricultural  improvement.  We  must  infer 
from  these  premises,  that  every  man  \vi]\  promote 
his  own  interest,  and  benefit  the  public,  by  patroni- 
sing and  endeavouring  to  extend  the  circulation  of  our 
agricultural  papers.  They  tend  to  no  possible  evil, 
while  they  are  certainly  calculated  to  do  much  good. 
Another  means  of  facilitating  agricultural  improve- 
ment is  to  introduce  class-books  into  our  common 
schools  for  the  senior  boys,  which  shall  teach  those 
elementary  principles  of  science  which  are  indispen- 
sable to  the  successful  practice  of  agriculture.  A 
boy  may  be  almost  as  easily  taught  to  analyze  soils, 
and  to  comprehend  the  leading  principles  of  animal 
and  vegetable  physiology,  as  he  can  to  commit  to 
memory  pages  of  matter,  the  knowledge  of  which 
seldom  serves  him  any  useful  purpose  in  manhood. 
We  must  begin  iii  youth  if  we  would  bring  about  any 
material  improvement  in  the  habits  of  society.    The 


MEANS  OF  IMPROVING  OUR  HUSBANDRY        69 

good  seed  that  is  sown  in  the  springtime  of  life  is 
never  lost :  it  will  ultimately  sprout,  and  grow,  and 
give  its  increase,  as  surely  as  the  grain  whicli  we 
deposite  in  a  fertile  soil.  The  tree  will  grow  as  tlie 
twig  is  bent.  Youth  is  the  season  to  get  instruction 
in  the  principles  of  the  business  which  is  to  consti- 
tute the  employment  of  life ;  and  the  more  knowl 
edge  boys  acquire  in  these  principles  before  they 
start  in  life  for  themselves,  the  more  likely  they  are 
to  prosper  and  become  useful  to  society.  The  time 
that  the  senior  boys  in  school  devote  to  the  business 
of  the  farm,  will  give  to  studies  which  are  connected 
with  their  present  and  future  business  an  interest 
and  an  influence  which  will  be  as  abiding  as  life. 

But  we  would  go  farther  in  the  business  of  agri- 
cultural instruction ;  we  would  establish  schools  to 
teach  simultaneously  both  the  theory  and  practice 
of  agriculture.  We  would  carry  something  of  the 
theory  into  the  primary  schools,  and  much  of  the 
practice  into  the  schools  of  science.  Veterinary 
schools,  to  instruct  in  the  anatomy  and  management 
of  domestic  animals,  have  long  been  established  in 
Europe ;  their  usefulness  has  been  highly  extolled, 
and  their  numbers  are  increasing.  Switzerland, 
Prussia,  and  France  have  also  their  schools,  in  which 
the  science  and  practice  of  agriculture  are  taught  to 
hundreds  of  young  men,  who  are  thereby  enabled  to 
manage  their  estates  with  greater  benefit  to  them- 
selves and  the  public,  or  to  obtain  honourable  and 
lucrative  situations  as  managers  for  others.  We 
give  bounties  on  our  fisheries,  to  make  them  a  nur- 
sery for  seamen  ;  but  we  give  none  upon  agriculture, 
which  is  the  best  nursery  of  freemen.  We  spend 
millions  annually  to  protect  our  commerce  ;  but  we 
give  nothing  to  improve  agriculture,  which  is  the  ba- 
sis and  support  of  that  commerce.  We  protect  oui 
manufactures  by  a  heavy  tariff";  yet  agriculture, 
which  furnishes  the  raw  materials,  and  buys  the  fab- 
rics which  the  manufacturer  consumes  and  vends. 


70  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

is  left  to  protect  itself.  We  have  expended  nearly 
three  millions  in  this  state  to  aid  in  educating  al- 
most exclusively  professional  and  other  gentlemen ; 
but  we  have  given  nothing  exclusively  to  educate 
our  agriculturists,  who  constitute  the  great  mass 
of  our  population.  And  yet  there  is  probably  no  em- 
ployment in  life  capable  of  being  more  benefited  by 
a  professional  education  (in  which  a  professional  ed 
ucation  would  conduce  more  to  the  public  prosperity) 
than  that  of  managing  our  farms.  A  proper  knowl- 
edge of  soils,  manures,  vegetables,  and  animals ;  of 
the  agency  of  caloric,  of  moisture,  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  of  hght,  in  the  economy  of  vegetable  and 
animal  growth,  is  of  the  greatest  use  to  the  farmer, 
and  yet  in  what  existing  school  can  be  acquired  this 
knowledge,  during  the  period  of  life  in  which  he 
ought  to  obtain  his  practical  information  ? 

AH  impressions  of  general  reform,  to  be  success- 
ful, must  be  first  made  upon  the  ductile  minds  of  the 
young.  The  old  are  apt  to  be  too  obstinately  wed- 
ded to  their  juvenile  habits  and  prejudices.  Alen  are 
prone  to  grow  up  in  the  creeds  in  which  they  are 
early  instructed — be  they  Christian,  Mohammedan, 
or  pagan — be  they  those  of  good  or  bad  husbandry. 
And  if  our  youth  are  instnicted  in  the  first  elements 
of  agriculture,  and  taught  to  consider  it,  what  it  truly 
is,  an  employment  calculated,  above  all  others,  to 
promote  individual  and  national  prosperity  and  hap- 
piness, they  will  aspire  to  honour  and  distinction  in 
its  labours ;  and  will  not  so  generally  press  to  the 
cities,  to  the  bar  and  the  counter,  for  the  means  of 
gratifying  a  laudable  ambition.  Society,  too,  will 
reap  an  abundant  reward  from  the  change.  We  wiU 
illustrate  this  by  an  historical  fact.  Ernest,  former 
duke  of  Saxe  Gotha,  had  his  people  instructed  by 
compendiums  of  every  kind  of  useful  knowledge,  in- 
cluding music  and  drawing,  that  were  put  into  the 
hands  of  youth  in  all  the  country  schools,  and  which 
in  a  few  years  entirely  changed  the  face  of  his  prin- 


MEANS  OF  IMPROVING  OUR  HUSBANDRY.      71 

cipality ;  and  "  it  is  amazing,"  adds  our  author,  who 
wrrte  some  years  afterward,  "to  observe  the  differ- 
ent irradiations  of  genius  in  this  and  tiie  adjacent 
circles."  The  effect  was  alike  beneficial  in  the  im- 
provement of  the  soil  and  the  mind.  And  the  exam- 
ple of  Saxe  Gotha  probably  led  to  the  excellent  sys- 
tem of  school  instruction  in  agriculture  which  has 
since  been  introduced  by  Prussia  and  most  of  the 
German  states. 

It  has  been  stated,  as  an  objection  to  the  establish- 
ment of  agricultural  schools,  that  they  would  be  only 
accessible  to  the  rich.  This  objection,  even  if  well 
founded,  would  not  go  to  lessen  their  value  to  the 
state  :  for  if  we  could  convert  a  few  hundred  drones, 
as  the  sons  of  rich  men  may  generally  be  termed, 
into  working  bees,  the  public,  as  well  as  the  young 
men  themselves,  would  certainly  be  gainers  by  the 
transformation.  The  complaint  is,  that  we  have  too 
many  consumers  and  too  few  producers.  This 
would  tend  to  restore  an  equilibrium  :  for  the  exam- 
ples of  the  rich,  be  they  good  or  bad,  have  an  impo- 
smg  ififluence  on  the  middling  and  lower  classes  ;  and 
thus  to  improve  the  habits  and  morals  of  the  rich, 
would  be  the  surest  way  to  improve  the  condition  of 
society  generally.  Hence,  therefore,  if  agricultural 
schools  can  be  made  instrumental  in  annually  con- 
verting a  few  hundred  of  the  idle  and  dissipated  sons 
of  wealth  (or,  rather,  in  preserving  them  from  vicious 
and  wrong  habits)  into  wholesome,  industrious  farm- 
ers, agricultural  pursuits  will  become  more  respecta- 
ble and  be  more  followed ;  and  we  venture  to  pre- 
dict, that  then  we  shall  not  long  continue  to  do,  what 
we  have  done — import  potatoes  from  Ireland  and 
Germany,  hay  and  oats  from  S|(|land,  eggs  from 
France,  and  breadstuffs  from  all  the  countries  of 
Europe,  including  the  dominions  of  the  autocrat  of 
Russia  and  of  the  Grand  Turk. 

But  it  is  not  exactly  true  that  the  rich  alone  would 
find  access  into  agricultural  schools,  were  such  es- 


72  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

tablished.  The  rich  rely  upon  their  paternal  wealth, 
and  have  not  often  the  ambition  to  become  useful,  al 
least  by  the  habits  of  manual  labour,  which  would 
be  rigidly  required  in  such  schools.  These  schools 
would  be  filled  with  the  youth  from  all  classes  of  so- 
ciety, who  aspire  to  fortune  and  independence  by  a 
manly  exercise  of  their  mental  and  physical  4)0 wers. 
Young  men  of  this  description,  even  from  the  poorer 
classes,  do  obtain  admission  into  literary  institutions, 
and  they  would  into  agricultural  ones  with  still 
greater  facility,  since  the  terms  of  admission  here 
would  be  more  reasonable,  and  with  an  equal  pros- 
pect of  distinction  and  usefulness  in  after  life.  But, 
whether  these  schools  were  filled  from  the  rich  or 
the  poorer  classes,  or,  as  we  have  supposed,  from  all 
classes  indiscriminately,  a  certain  and  great  public 
good  would  result  from  their  establishment :  the  pu- 
pils would  go  to  swell  the  producing  classes  of  soci 
ety  with  habits  of  application  and  usefulness,  mindb 
imbued  with  scientific  knowledge,  bodies  hale  and 
robust,  and  hands  practised  in  all  the  manual  opera- 
tions of  the  farm. 

[Note. — The  foregoing  just  and  forcible  remarks 
on  the  necessity  of  improving  our  husbandry,  are 
from  a  paper  read  by  Judge  Buel  before  the  State 
Agricultural  Society  in  1838.  A  few  remarks  re- 
lating to  the  agricultural  periodical,  the  Cultivator, 
are  omitted,  as  not  precisely  in  place  in  this  volume, 
however  just  in  themselves.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  we  have  no  correct  or  authentic  means  of  deter- 
mining the  amo|fl|  of  any  given  article  of  produce 
at  dift'ercnt  perioos  of  time ;  still  there  can  be  little 
question  that  the  opinion  above  expressed,  that  there 
18  a  decided  falling  off  in  the  quantity  of  grain  pro- 
duced per  acre  in  the  older  settled  parts  of  our  coud 


ROOT    CULTURE.  73 

try,  is  correct ;  and  there  is  little  room  for  doubv  ll>at 
the  same  result  will  follow  in  the  newer  districts, 
unless  a  more  rational  mode  of  culturftis  introduced 
and  practised.  That  course  has  been  pointed  out  in 
a  lucid  mamier  in  Chapter  I.  of  this  volume.  In  a 
few  words,  it  consists  in  drainmg,  tillage,  manures, 
roots,  and  a  rotation  of  crops.  The  ruinous  practice 
of  exhausting  our  lands  by  continued  cropping  must 
be  abandoned;  roots  and  clover  must  take  their 
places  with  the  grains  ;  and  a  better  and  more  eco- 
nomical system  of  making  and  managing  manures 
must  be  adopted  before  our  agriculture  can  rank 
with  that  of  the  most  favoured  nations. — Editors.] 


CHAPTER  III. 


BOOT    CULTURE. 


The  Potato. — Manures. — Early  Potatoes. — Choice  of  Kinds. — 
Mode  of  Planting. — Harvesting  the  Crop. — Sorting  the  Cro^. — 
Wintering  the  Trop. — Culture. —  Beet.— Carrot. —  Parsnip.— 
Turnip. —  Introductory  Remarks. —  Methods  op  Feeding 
Roots. — Report  tty  Judge  Buel. — Col.  Meacham  on  the  Carrot 
and  Ruta  Baga. 

I.    THE   POTATO. 

Every  farmer  cultivates  the  potato,  but  few  farm- 
ers cultivate  it  as  profitably  as  they  might.  The 
average  crop  does  not  probably  exceed  one  hundred 
bushels  an  acre.*     It  may  be  made  to  exceed  three 

[*  We  are  inclined  to  think  that  Judge  Buel  has  underrated  in 
this  place  the  average  of  the  potato  crop  in  this  country.  In 
some  instances  in  which  the  quantity  on  considerable  tracts  has 


74  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

hun'ircd  bushels  the  acre,  and  without  increasing 
materially  the  expense  of  culture.  It  is  a  reproach 
to  us,  that  thisj^oot  is  brought  three  thousand  niiles — 
from  Englana7lrelanc],  and  Germany,  to  supply  ihe 
wants  of  our  city  population.  Let  us  try  to  do 
better.  It  is  in  the  hope  that  we  may  contribute  to 
increase  our  average  product,  so  as  to  supply  the 
demands  of  our  own  market,  that  we  give  the  fol- 
lowing directions  for  its  culture. 

Soil  and  preparation. — A  mistaken  notion  prevails 
with  many,  that  the  best  potatoes  are  grown  on  a 
warm,  sandy  soil.  The  reverse  of  this  is  true.  The 
best  potatoes,  is  to  quality,  are  believed  to  be  grown 
in  the  west  of  England,  Ireland,  Nova  Scotia,  Maine, 
and  other  high  latitudes,  and  particularly  in  humid 
climates.  In  a  dry  season,  the  quality  and  quantity 
are  with  us  not  as  good  as  they  are  in  a  moist  and 
cool  one.  The  potato  zone  does  not  extend  south 
of  New- York  :  that  is,  its  quality  deteriorates  south 
of  that  latitude  ;  and  it  probably  has  the  most  con- 
genial climate  between  4*2°  and  45°.  If  these  as- 
sumptions are  well  founded,  then  it  should  be  our 
aim  to  plant  upon  a  cool  and  moist,  though  not  wet 
soil,  which  approximates  nearest  to  the  temperature 
of  the  best  potato-growing  districts  elsewhere.  The 
potato  will  grow  anywhere  if  there  are  vegetable 
matter  and  moisture,  but  it  will  be  inferior  upon  dry 
sands,  and  stiff  or  wet  clays.  It  does  best  in  loams 
or  reclaimed  swamps ;  and  it  pays  well  for  a  good 
dressing  of  long  manure,  and  should,  if  practicable, 
be  planted  on  the  first  furrow  of  a  grass  ley.  If  the 
sod  is  old  and  tough,  plough  deep  in  September,  hav- 

been  ascertained,  it  has  averaged  from  150  to  200  bushels  per 
acre.  In  the  county  of  Susquehanna,  for  example,  the  aver- 
ago  for  the  whole  county  was  about  175  bushels  per  acre. 
Some  towns  have  given  over  200,  and  a  few,  perhap.s,  have  fallen 
below  an  average  of  100  bushels  There  is,  hjwever,  no  room 
for  doubt,  that  the  average  is  much  less  than  it  would  be  with  a 
better  system  of  cultivation. — £ds.} 


ROOT    CULTURE  75 

Ine  first  spread  the  manure,  if  to  be  had  at  the  time ; 
but  if  the  ley  is  one  of  clover,  of  one  or  two  years 
old,  the  ploughing  may  be  postponed  till  spring.  If 
ploughed  in  September  without  manure,  this  may 
be  spread  upon  the  ground  just  before  planting,  and 
buried  with  a  light  furrow,  so  as  not  to  turn  up  the 
vegetable  matter  of  the  sod.  In  our  practice  of  al- 
ways sowing  clover  with  small  grains,  we  seldom 
fail  of  having  a  tolerable  grass  ley  for  the  corn  and 
potatoes  which  are  to  follow;  and  its  value  to  the 
crop  doubly  compensates  for  the  cost  of  the  clover- 
seed.  The  potato  has  a  system  of  roots,  which 
strike  deep  if  the  soil  will  permit,  to  collect  food 
for  the  plant.  A  decomposing  sod,  with  the  manure 
which  shoidd  accompany  it,  turned  with  a  deep  fur- 
row, aflfords  the  best  aliment  for  the  plant,  and  is  de- 
posited where  the  roots  naturally  seek  it,  and  where 
it  remains  cool  and  moist.  The  stolens  have  a  dif- 
ferent office  to  perform.  They  require  more  air  and 
heat,  shoot  horizontally,  and,  if  buried  deep  in  culture 
by  the  plough,  will  produce  a  new  set  near  the  sur- 
face. So  that  a  rich,  deep  soil,  having  a  good  sod 
and  a  mellow  surface,  is  best  adapted  to  this  plant. 
Harrow  thoroughly  before  planting. 

Manures. — The  value  of  manures  to  the  potato 
crop  can  scarcely  be  overrated ;  and,  indeed,  a  large 
crop  is  seldom  obtained  without  this  auxiliary.  Long 
or  unfermented  manure  is  preferable  to  that  which 
is  rotten.  And  remember,  this  manure  does  not  be- 
come more  impaired  in  value  for  the  crop  which  is  to 
follow  the  potato  than  if  it  were  summer-yarded. 
We  prefer  applying  it  broadcast,  with  an  unsparing 
hand,  previous  to  the  last  ploughing;  and  we  ap- 
prove of  Mr.  French's  practice,  of  sowing  plaster 
upon  the  manure  instead  of  afterward  applying  it  to 
the  growing  plants. 

Seed. — A  thousand  and  one  experiments  have  been 
made,  and  with  various  results,  to  determine  the  rel- 
ative value  of  large,  medium,  or  small  seed — of  cut 


76  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

or  whole  tubers.  We  think  the  majority  of  these  ex- 
periments is  in  favour  of  medium,  or  a  little  more 
than  medium  sized  roots  for  seed,  cut  into  sets  of 
two  or  three  eyes.  On  the  principle  that  like  pro- 
duces like,  such  a  seed  will  produce  a  crop  of  the 
most  desirable  size  for  the  table.  Each  eye  forms 
a  distinct  plant,  like  a  kernel  of  corn ;  and  the  size 
of  the  tuber,  and  not  of  the  set  which  is  taken  from 
it,  will  give  character  to  the  product.  If  the  variety 
has  a  dwarf  habit  of  growth,  more  sets  may  be  put 
in  a  hill,  or  they  may  be  planted  nearer  in  the  drill, 
than  where  the  growth  is  tall,  or  where  the  tops 
send  out  many  lateral  shoots.  Rich  ground  will  also 
sustain  a  greater  number  of  plants  than  p>oor  ground. 
The  Rohan,  and  we  are  told,  also,  the  forty-fold,  re- 
quire thin  planting.  The  object  should  be  to  give 
the  plants  a  good  pasture,  and  not  to  have  the  tops 
so  thick  as  to  exclude  the  solar  rays  from  the  soil. 

To  produce  early  potatoes,  or  to  bring  a  crop  to  ear- 
ly maturity,  it  is  advised  to  gather  the  seed  before 
it  has  attained  maturity,  to  expose  it  some  days  to 
the  influence  of  the  sun,  and  to  select  the  top  ends 
for  the  earlier  crop.  We  have  a  strong  illustration 
of  the  correctness  of  these  conclusions  in  Loudon's 
Gardeners'  Magazine.  A  correspondent  of  that  jour- 
nal made  the  experiment :  he  dug  every  other  row 
of  a  potato  patch  for  seed  while  the  vines  were  fresh, 
and  exposed  them  in  the  sun  until  they  had  become 
green.  In  February  he  cut  them  crosswise,  leaving 
the  bottom  and  top  in  separate  sets.  He  cut  those 
which  had  been  suffered  to  ripen  in  a  similar  man- 
ner, and  planted  the  four  kinds  in  alternate  rows. 
They  were  all  planted  on  stable  litter,  and  covered 
with  about  three  inches  of  earth.  A  part  of  each 
kind  received  no  subsequent  earthing.  We  give  the 
result  in  the  writer's  own  words. 

"The  early  potatoes  not  earthed  up  grew  close 
around  the  stock  or  stem,  like  eggs  in  a  nest,  and  so 
near  the  surface  of  the  ground  that  they  might  be 


KOOT    CULTURE.  77 

picked  off  with  the  finger,  leaving  the  stock  or  stem 
uninjured,  to  produce  more  potatoes  from  the  run- 
ners. From  the  eye-sets  of  the  unripe  tubers  we 
had  a  supply  every  day  for  a  fortnight,  when  tliose 
of  the  bottom  sets  came  into  use  for  another  fort- 
night ;  at  that  time,  potatoes  from  the  eye  or  top  sets 
from  the  ripe  seed  came  into  use,  and  were  succeed- 
ed by  potatoes  from  the  bottom  sets  of  the  ripe  seed. 
Those  kept  for  seed,  or  the  table,  were  earthed  up 
as  usual,  and  each  row  produced  almost  as  large  a 
crop  as  any  two  rows  not  earthed  up — the  luxury  of 
an  early  potato  being  a  greater  object  than  the 
quantity." 

Choice  of  sorts. — There  is  a  difference  of  nearly 
one  half  in  the  nutritious  or  fattening  properties  of 
different  varieties  of  the  potato.  Those  which  are 
best  for  table  are  best  for  market  and  best  for  farm- 
stock,  though  their  yield  is  generally  less  than  thai 
of  the  coarser  varieties.  Those  in  the  highest  es- 
teem are  the  Pink-eyes,  Mercers,  Sault  St.  Marie, 
St.  Helena;  and  almost  every  district  has  its  othei 
favourites.  The  Rohan,  we  think,  will  ultimately 
obtain  the  ascendancy,  on  account  of  economy  iu 
seed,  its  yield,  and  its  intrinsic  merits.* 

Mode  of -planting. — Three  modes  are  practised :  in 
hills  and  in  drills,  as  a  distinctive  crop,  and  in  alter- 
nate double  or  treble  rows  with  Indian  corn.  The 
propriety  of  planting  in  hills  or  drills  depends  upon 
the  condition  of  the  soil ;  if  it  has  been  thoroughly 
subdued  by  the  plough,  drills  are  to  be  preferred,  aa 

*  The  following  remark  is  in  this  connexion  worthy  the  at 
tention  of  the  practical  agriculturist.  "  The  first  point  to  which 
I  wish  to  rlirect  the  attention  of  the  cultivator  of  the  potato  is, 
the  a^e  nf  the  variety  ;  for  it  has  long  been  known,  that  every  vari 
ety  cultivated  gradtuilly  becomes  debilitated,  and  lose*  a  large  portion 
of  its  powers  of  producing  ;  and  I  believe  that  almost  every  variety 
tiow  cultivnted  in  this  and  the  adjoining  counties  has  long  since  pass 
ed  the  period  of  its  age  at  which  it  ought  to  have  resigned  its  place  to  a 
successor."— T.  A.  Knight. — Farmer's  Instruclo;  i.,  193,  pub- 
lished by  Harpei  &  Hrott  er& 


78  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

they  are  cultivated  with  the  least  expense,  and  gcn< 
erally  give  the  largest  product,  though  they  in  gen- 
eral demand  the  most  labour  in  gathering  the  crop. 
The  practice  of  raising  potatoes  with  corn,  by  al 
temating  two  or  three  rows  of  each,  has  been  emi 
nently  successful  where  it  has  been  conducted  with 
spirit :  the  product  of  the  mixed  crop  has  been 
greater  than  where  each  lias  had  a  separate  depart- 
ment of  the  field.  We  omit  to  notice  the  Irish  mode 
of  planting  in  beds,  as  involving  an  economy  in  land 
which  we  do  not  reqOire,  and  an  expenditure  of  la- 
bour which  we  cannot  afford.  The  seed  should  not 
be  buried  more  than  three  or  four  inches,  and  the 
covering  should  be  least  in  wet  ground. 

Culture. — The  culture  of  the  potato,  to  be  profit- 
able, should  be  almost  wholly  performed  with  the 
plough,  cultivator,  and  harrow;  little  other  labour 
being  required  with  the  hand-hoe  than  may  be  bare- 
ly sufficient  to  destroy  the  weeds  which  these  imple- 
ments do  not  reach.  In  the  first  place,  the  seed 
may  be  covered  with  the  plough,  whether  in  hills  or 
in  drills.  In  the  next  place,  the  harrow  should  be 
used,  before  the  plants  are  above  ground,  to  reduce 
the  ridges  made  by  the  plough  in  planting,  to  pulver- 
ize the  surface,  and  to  destroy  the  young  weeds. 
In  the  third  place,  the  cultivator  or  the  plough,  turn- 
ing  a  superficial  furrow  from  the  plants,  may  be  in- 
troduced when  they  are  not  more  than  six  inches 
above  the  surface.  In  the  fourth  place,  the  plough 
may  be  used  to  turn  a  light  furrow  to  the  plants,  so 
as  to  give  their  stems  an  earthing  of  three  or  four 
inches ;  but  the  plough  should  run  twice  nearly  in 
the  same  track,  that  the  ridges  upon  which  the  crop 
grows  may  be  rather  flat  and  broad  than  pointed — 
rather  concave  than  convex — calculated  rather  to  re- 
tain than  to  throw  off  water.  Here  the  hand-hoe 
may  be  of  use  in  gathering  around  the  stems  a  por- 
tion of  the  earth  raised  by  the  plough,  in  destroying 
weeds  among  the  plants,  and  in  perfecting  the  earth- 


ROOT    CULTURE  79 

ing  or  hilling  process ;  for  the  crop  shoa.d  receive 
no  farther  earthing  after  the  plants  are  in  blossom, 
when  the  stolens  have  shot  forth,  and  the  tubers  be- 
gan to  form.  Earthing  after  this  time  causes  a  new 
set  of  stolens  near  the  surface,  and  a  growth  of  a 
new  set  of  tubers,  which,  in  a  measure,  rob  the  ori- 
ginal ones  of  their  food.  We  have  seen,  by  the  ex- 
periments quoted  in  raising  early  potatoes,  that  the 
natural  place  for  throwing  out  stolens,  or  roots 
which  produce  the  tubers,  is  the  point  of  the  stem 
which  first  comes  to  the  light  and  atmosphere  ;  that 
if  this  point  is  covered  in  due  time  with  two  or  three 
inches  of  mould,  stolens  are  protruded  into  it  which 
produce  the  potato ;  but  that,  if  this  earth  is  wanting, 
the  stolens  cannot  protrude,  but  the  potatoes  grow 
at  the  surface  around  the  stem.  After  the  earthing 
process  described,  no  farther  care  is  required  than 
to  destroy  weeds,  which  may  be  done  with  the  hoe, 
or,  if  long  omitted,  by  the  hand. 

In  harvesting  the  crop,  although  we  have  made 
much  progress  in  improvement,  much  remains  to  be 
done.  The  hoe,  the  dung-fork,  the  spade,  the  po- 
tato-hook, and  the  plough,  followed  by  the  harrow, 
have  each  their  several  advocates.  From  our  experi- 
ence, we  should  choose  the  last  first,  and  the  first 
last,  where  the  crop  is  in  drills  ;  and  we  should  pre- 
fer the  hook  where  it  is  in  hills.  With  the  potato- 
hook,  when  the  crop  has  been  in  hills,  we  have 
thrown  out  fourteen  bushels  of  pink-eyes  in  an  hour, 
and  twenty-seven  bushels  of  the  Rohan,  though  in 
neither  case  did  we  gather  the  potatoes  ;  but  in  both 
the  digging  process  was  thoroughly  done.  Lawson 
&  Son's  potato  lifter,  figured  and  described  in  vol. 
v.,  p.  114  of  the  Cultivator,  seems  to  be  calculated 
to  abridge  the  harvest  labour  of  this  crop. 

Sorting  the  crop. — This  is  an  economical  process, 
though  little  attended  to,  and  may  be  more  profitably 
done  before  the  crop  is  housed  or  pitted  tlian  after- 
ward.     There  is  a  portion  of  the  crop,  often  a  fourth 


0(r  AMERICAN    HDSOAWDRT. 

or  a  third,  which  is  small,  and  unfit  for  the  table,  for 
market,  or  for  seed,  but  which  is  as  good  as  the 
large  ize  !or  farm-stocl;,  and  winch  can  be  econom- 
ically used  for  this  purpose,  in  fattening  hogs  and 
beef  cattle,  in  autumn  and  winter.  If  they  are  sep- 
arated at  the  harvest,  they  are  always  in  readiness ; 
if  not,  the  sorting  is  tedious,  or  is  nejjlected,  and  the 
small  potatoes  are  the  last  that  remain,  cither  for 
the  table  or  for  seed.  'With  us  the  work  is  a  trifling 
affair.  We  have  a  wire  sieve  or  riddle,  the  meshes 
of  which  are  of  a  size  to  admit  those  of  a  given  size, 
appropriated  to  swine  or  cattle,  t(i,pas8  through.  As 
the  crop  is  brought  home,  a  peck  is  thrown  into  the 
riddle,  and,  by  shaking  it  half  a  minute,  the  sorting  is 
completed. 

Wintering  the  crop. — The  best  mode  of  preserving 
potatoes  in  perfection  through  the  winter  is  to  bury 
them  in  shallow  pits,  in  a  dry  and  porous  soil  (a  side 
hill  is  the  best),  where  they  will  be  free  from  water, 
and  to  cover  them  first  with  straw,  and  then  with 
earth,  and,  if  convenient,  coarse  manure  over  the 
earth,  so  that  they  shall  be  secure  from  frost. 
"Whether  put  in  pit  or  cellar,  they  should  be  dry, 
that  is,  free  from  external  moisture.  Potatoes  put 
into  the  cellar  should  be  kept  as  cool  as  possible 
without  freezing,  and  air  should  be  excluded  by  a 
light  covering  of  mould  or  sand.  A  dry,  warm  at- 
mosphere will  speedily  impair  their  good  properties. 

In  using  potatoes,  they  are  improved  by  boiling,  es- 
pecially for  pigs.  The  potato  belongs  to  a  family 
of  poisonous  plants,  the  solanum;  the  boiling  o\ 
steaming  of  which  is  believed  to  expel  the  deleteri- 
ous, and  to  improve  its  nutritious  properties.  To 
neat  cattle  and  horses  they  may  be  fed  raw  with 
manifest  advantage.  In  cooking  them  for  the  table, 
it  is  preferable  to  do  it  by  steam.  The  mode  of  do- 
ing it  is  simple.  Take  a  piece  of  sheet  iron,  of  the 
size  of  the  bilge  of  your  pot  or  kettle ;  perforate  it 
wi*.h  half  inch  holes ;  then  clip  off  two  parallel  sides 


ROOT   CULTURE.  81 

80  as  to  admit  it  into  the  mouth  of  the  vessel ;  put 
it  in ;  put  some  water  under,  and  some  potatoes  over 
this  perforated  iron  ;  and,  as  the  water  boils,  the  po- 
tatoes will  be  steamed  and  prepared  for  the  table : 
or,  if  to  be  boiled,  put  them  into  the  vessel  while  the 
water  is  cold,  that  they  nay  heat  through  as  the  tem- 
perature of  the  liquid  is  increased,  so  that  the  inside 
may  cook  as  well  as  the  outside ;  and,  when  they 
are  near  being  done,  turn  off  the  water,  remove  the 
cover,  and  leave  them  to  dry  over  a  moderate  heat. 

We  will  close  this  article,  already  longer  than  we 
had  intended,  by  giving  the  culture,  expense,  product, 
and  estimated  profit  of  two  crops  raised  by  our- 
selves, in  different  years,  upon  the  Albany  barrens, 
the  soil  a  sand-loam. 

Culture. — The  field  was  in  clover.  We  applied 
twenty-five  loads  of  long  manure,  in  May,  to  an  acre, 
and  dropped  it  at  suitable  distances  for  spreading ; 
marked  out  two  lands  of  equal  breadth,  twenty  feet ; 
and,  having  the  seed  prepared,  proceeded  to  planting, 
which  occupied  three  men,  a  boy  and  team,  three 
half  days.  One  man  took  charge  of  the  team  ;  a 
second  raked  the  manure  into  the  furrow,  and  trod 
it  down  as  he  went  on ;  and  a  third  spread  the  ma- 
nure, and,  with  the  boy,  dropped  the  seed.  The  rake 
followed  the  first  furrow,  and  the  manure  from  two 
and  a  half  feet  surface  was  drawn  into  it,  and  the 
sets  or  seed  dropped  at  eight  inches  distance  on  the 
manure.  The  plough  followed  and  turned  three  fur- 
rows, or  made  three  bouts.  In  the  mean  time,  the 
manure  and  seed  were  deposited  in  the  first  furrow 
of  the  second  land,  to  which  the  plough  followed, 
and  in  this  way  they  alternated  till  the  planting  was 
completed.  The  ground  was  then  rolled,  harrowed 
as  the  plants  began  to  break  the  surface,  and  subse- 
quently ploughed  between  the  rows,  and  hand-hoed 
once.  About  half  the  field  was  a  dry  sand-knoll, 
which  suffered  severely  from  drought ;  and  the  crop 
here  was  but  a  little  more  than  fifty  per  cent,  of  the 
other  half  The  product  was  ascertained  by  the  ag 
I.-  G 


82 


AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 


seed 

«2  00 

2  00 

18  75 

12  50 

I  00 

1  50 

11  25 

5  00 

ricultural  committee ;  and,  as  stated  by  them,  em- 
braced the  average  of  the  entire  acre. 

■  XPENSe   OP   EXPKRIMKNT  I. 

l^fan  and  team  1}  days,  plonghing  in  seed 

Two  men  and  boy  planting  same 

25  luuds  of  manure,  at  75  cents   . 

25  bushels  seed,  at  50  cents 

Kollmg,  harrowing,  and  ploughing 

Hand-hoeing  once 

15  days  taking  up  crop  (a  long  lime) 

Rent 

$54  00 

PRODUCT. 

359  bushels  large  potatoes,  at  50  cents         .    $179  50 
71    do.     smali  do.,  at  12i  cents         .        .       '  8  88 

$188  38 

Deduct  charges 54  00 

Nett  profits  in  experiment  1  ...  $134  38 

At  2s.  a  bushel,  the  nett  profit  would  have  been  .        .      45  25 

EXPERIMENT   II. 

Culture. — This  crop  had  been  preceded  by  wheat. 
It  had  25  loads  of  long  manure  spread  and  ploughed 
in.  The  ground  was  then  harrowed,  furrowed  or 
listed  with  two  and  a  half  feet  intervals,  the  seed 
dropped  at  eight  inches,  covered  with  a  plough,  a 
furrow  on  each  side,  and  the  ridges  rolled.  The 
after  culture  consists  of  two  horse  and  hand  hoe- 
ings.  The  crop  was  harvested  with  the  plough  and 
potato-hook.  The  product  was  determined  by  the 
agricultural  committee. 

EXPENSE. 

One  ploughing $2  00 

25  loads  manure,  at  75  cents 18  75 

25  bushels  seed,  at  50  cents 12  50 

Harrowing,  furrowing,  rolling,  and  horse-hoeing        .  3  00 

Planting  and  covering,  3  daya 2  25 

Hand-hoeing,  2  days 1  50 

Taking  up  crop 9  00 

Bent 5  00 

$54  00 


ROOr   CULTURE.  83 


183  bush,  mercnantable  potatoes,  at  50  cts.  $191  50 
97  do.    siiiall  do.,  at  12i  cents         .        .  9  62i 

$201  12J 

Deduct  charges 54  00 

Nett  profits $147  12J 

At  2s.  per  bushel,  the  profit  would  have  been  about .        52  00 

In  these  estimates  the  whole  manure  is  charged 
to  the  crops.  Deducting  one  half,  as  is  customary, 
the  profits  would  have  been  $9  37  1-2  more  in  each 
experiment. 

U.    BEETS, 

Of  whatever  variety,  whether  for  sugar  or  for 
cattle,  require  the  same  soil  and  the  same  culture. 
The  mangold-wurzel  or  scarcity-beet  has  hitherto 
been  the  principal  kind  cultivated  for  farm-stock, 
though  the  blood-beet  occasionally,  and  th'  sugar- 
beet  recently,  have  both  been  grown  for  this  .■  irpose. 

Beets,  like  all  tap-rooted  plants,  require  a  deep 
soil,  as  it  seldom  happens  that  the  roots  enlarge 
much  in  the  subsoil,  or  below  where  the  eurth  is 
moved  by  the  plough  or  spade.  Moist  loams,  either 
of  sand  or  clay,  suit  them  best ;  though  they  grow 
on  all  soils  not  wet  or  very  stiff,  provided  they  are 
made  rich  and  mellow.  The  mangold-wurzel  will 
do  better  on  poor  lands  than  the  other  sorts. 

The  deeper  the  ground  is  ploughed,  the  more  thor- 
oughly it  is  pulverized,  and  the  more  intimately  the 
manure  is  incorporated  with  the  earthy  matters,  the 
better  is  the  prospect  of  a  crop.  Pulverization  is 
particularly  necessary  to  the  germination  of  the  seed. 
The  harrow  should  therefore  be  efficiently  used  be- 
fore the  seed  is  deposited  in  the  soil. 

The  mannerof  planting  the  beet,  of  whatever  kind, 
is  in  drills,  which  may  be  done  either  by  the  drill- 
barrow  or  the  hand.  Mangold-wurzel  should  be  in 
rows  twenty-seven  to  thirty  inches  apart,  and  the 


84  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

plants,  when  out  of  the  reach  of  insects,  thinned  to 
twelve  or  fifteen  inches  in  the  row,  as  the  object  is 
to  obtain  large  size.  The  table  and  sugar  beet  may 
be  sown  in  rows  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  inches 
apart,  and  left  to  grow  at  six  to  ten  mches  in  the 
rows,  the  object  being  not  great  size,  but  good  qual- 
ity :  it  being  found  that  the  quality  of  medium  or 
small-sized  roots  is  better,  both  in  regard  to  flavour 
and  saccharine  matter,  than  that  of  very  large  roots. 
Some  prefer  soaking  the  seed,  and  some  even  sprout- 
ing it  before  it  is  sown ;  as  it  is  husky,  and,  in  case 
of  dry  weather,  frequently  does  not  germinate.  But 
if  the  seed  is  put  into  fresh-ploughed  ground,  planted 
early  in  the  season,  and  a  roller  passed  over  the 
surface  after  it  is  covered,  or  the  ground  pressed 
with  the  hoe  or  foot,  it  seldom  fails  to  grow.  The 
seed  should  be  covered  from  three  fourths  to  an 
inch  deep ;  and  as  the  young  plants  are  liable  to  be 
destroyed  by  the  grub,  and  even  the  tuniip-fly,  it  is 
advisable  to  sow  thick,  say  from  three  to  four  pounds 
of  seed  to  the  acre. 

In  the  after-culture,  the  objects  are  to  keep  the 
crop  clean  and  the  soil  mellow.  The  first  dressing 
may  be  light,  with  a  cultivator,  where  the  breadth 
between  the  rows  will  admit ;  but  when  the  plants 
arc  well  established,  the  cultivator  or  small  plough 
should  be  run  deeper,  and  this  operation  may  after- 
ward be  repeated  to  advantage.  The  crop  should 
be  harvested  as  soon  as  it  has  ceased  growing,  which 
is  known  by  the  under  leaves  turning  yellow  ;  as,  if 
left  in  the  ground  longer,  the  roots  deteriorate  in 
value. 

Mangold-wurzel  is  the  German  name  :  mangold  a 
bee/,  wurzel  a  root.  Their  culture  was  introduced 
into  Enghnd,  from  Germany,  about  18*20,  and  more 
recently  they  have  attracted  considerable  attention 
in  this  countiy.  In  1830,  the  Doncaster  Agricultu- 
ral Association,  an  institution  which  has  rendered 
vast  service  to  the  farming  interest,  sent  abroad  a 


ROOT    CULTURE.  85 

circular  among  the  best  English  fanners,  with  a  view 
of  collecting  all  the  information  upon  the  culture 
and  use  of  this  vegetable  which  was  likely  to  be 
useful.  Nineteen  answers  were  received  from  large 
growers  of  the  root,  and  the  society  published,  in  a 
condensed  form,  their  purport.  The  report  states 
that 

"  The  answers  are  from  every  description  of  soil, 
the  greatest  number  (nine)  from  sand,  not,  it  ap- 
pears, because  that  kind  of  soil  is  most  favourable 
to  it,  but  because,  on  sands,  fallow  crops  of  all  sorts 
are  more  generally  grown  than  any  other ;  six  are 
from  peat,  four  from  clay,  four  from  chalk  or  lime- 
stone. 

"  The  method  of  sowing  appears  to  be  drilling  or 
dibbling  on  ridges,  from  twenty-seven  to  thirty  inch- 
es apart,  and  afterward  singling  out  the  plants  in  the 
rows  at  about  sixteen  or  eighteen  inches  from  each 
other :  Che  period  of  sowing  any  time  between  the 
middle  of  April  and  end  of  May  ;  on  cold  soils  ear- 
lier than  on  warm. 

"  The  tops  and  leaves  should  be  ploughed  into  the 
land  immediately.*  In  comparing  the  quantity  of 
manure  used  for  Swedish  turnips  and  mangold-wur- 
zel,  it  appears  from  the  answers  of  those  farmers 
who  have  tried  mangold- wurzel  longest,  that  both  re- 
quire nearly  an  equal  quantity,  ten  or  twelve  two- 
horse  cart-loads  per  acre.  With  respect  to  the  com- 
parative product  of  the  two  crops,  it  appears  to  be 
in  favour  of  mangold-wurzel  in  the  proportion  of 
about  one  fifth.  The  greatest  weight  obtained  is  by 
Mr.  Simpson,  of  Babworth — 54  tons.  Of  our  corre- 
spondents, ten  decidedly  prefer  mangold-wurzel,  two 
give  a  partial  preference  to  Swedes,  and  the  rest 
have  not  expressed  an  opinion. 

"  The  feeding  properties  of  mangold-wurzel  and 
Swedes  are  an  important  part  of  our  investigation. 

♦  After  the  rocts  are  harvested. 


86  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

Lord  Althorp  alone  has  tried  their  comparative  mer- 
its, and  he  gives  them  a  decided  preference  over  the 
Swede.  In  tills  opinion  his  lordship  is  supported 
by  Mr.  Kelk ;  but  seven  of  our  correspondents  are 
of  the  opinion  that  the  Swedish  turnips  will  feed 
quiclter.  Five  of  our  correspondents  say  it  is  ben- 
eficial to  milch  cows,  and  two  of  the  Norfolk  farm- 
ers say  it  is  apt  to  injure  the  butter. 

"  To  sum  up,  the  advantages  of  mangold-wurzel 
are  these : 

It  is  more  sure  to  plant,  being  very  little  liable  to 
the  fly  or  grub. 

It  will  produce  more  weight. 

It  is  off  the  land  earlier. 

It  is  useful  as  a  change  of  fallow  crop  when  the 
land  is  tired  of  turnips. 

It  will  grow  on  land  where  turnips  cannot  be 
raised. 

It  is  better  spring  food. 

"  On  the  other  hand,  in  favour  of  the  Swedish  tur- 
nips it  may  be  said. 

That  the  weeding  and  singhng  out  are  less  expen- 
sive. 

There  is  more  time  for  fallowing  in  the  spring. 

The  succeeding  crop  is  better  than  after  mangold- 
wurzel. 

Perhaps  cattle  feed  best  on  Swedish  turnips  when 
they  are  fed  alone." 

Mangold-wurzel  is  relished  by  every  description 
of  stock ;  though,  in  feeding  it  to  neat  cattle,  it  is 
recommended  to  commence  with  small  feeds,  and, 
when  it  produces  bad  effects,  to  change  the  animal's 
food  for  a  few  days.  (Jharles  Poppy,  an  enthusiast 
in  this  culture,  and  whose  pamphlet  is  before  us, 
particularizes  twenty-six  uses  to  which  this  root 
may  be  profitably  applied. 

The  British  farmers  speak  highly  of  this  root  as 
a  food  for  young  calves.  It  is  cut  small,  and  fed  to 
them  after  they  are  a  fortnight  old  with  wonderful 
benefit. 


ROOT   CULTURE.  87 

The  value  of  this  crop  is  certainly  great  in.  the 
economy  of  the  farm.  Estimating  the  product  at 
twenty  tons  an  acre,  it  will  give  746  bushels  of  sixty 
pounds  each ;  which,  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  a 
day,  would  keep  a  cow,  with  the  addition  of  a  little 
straw  or  chaff,  373  days,  or  somewhat  more  than  a 
year.  Two  tons  of  hay,  the  average  product  of  ar. 
acre,  would  keep  the  same  animal,  allowing  a  quar- 
ter of  a  hundred  per  diem,  but  160  days,  or  about 
one  third  of  the  time  that  the  wurzel  from  an  acre 
would  keep  her ;  while  the  animal  would  be  better 
:n  flesh  and  milk  on  the  roots  than  she  would  be  on 
the  hay. 

In  storing  and  keeping  the  mangold-wurzel  in 
winter,  the  same  precautions  must  be  taken,  and  the 
same  means  adopted,  as  are  required  for  securing 
potatoes  and  ruta-baga.  If  deposited  in  pits,  these 
should  be  narrow,  and  ventilating  holes  made  in  the 
crown  of  the  pits.  They  are  more  liable  to  be  in- 
jured by  frosts  than  the  ruta-baga. 

III.    THE   CARROT. 

The  soil  best  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  carrot 
is  a  deep  sand-loam.  The  preparation  of  the  ground 
consists  in  ploughing  to  the  depth  of  a  foot,  the  ap- 
plication of  rotten  manure,  to  be  well  incorporated 
with  the  soil  (except  long  manure  has  been  applied 
to  the  previous  crop),  and  complete  pulverization. 
Ploughing  the  fall  previously  is  recommended. 

The  kind  of  carrot  best  adapted  to  field  culture  is 
the  long  red.  The  seed  should  be  of  the  preceding 
year's  growth.  The  best  mode  of  culture  is  in  drills ; 
though  in  Suffolk,  England,  sowing  broadcast  is  pre- 
ferred. We  have  modern  drill-barrows  adapted  to 
the  sowing  of  this  seed,  though  the  sowing  it  by 
hand  is  not  a  tedious  process,  as  a  man  may  go 
ahead  in  sowing  in  this  way  as  fast  as  another  drives 
a  barrow.  The  difference  consists  in  making  the 
drill  with  the  hoe  and  covering  the  seed.     As  the 


68  AMERICAN  HUSBANDRY. 

seed  is  or  peculiar  lightness,  it  is  apt  not  to  vegetate 
well  if  the  surface  is  light ;  and  the  practice  has  ob- 
tained with  large  growers  of  prepaiing  it  before- 
hand, by  mixing  five  pounds  of  seed  with  a  bushel 
of  sand  or  fine  mould  a  week  or  two  beforehand,  and 
of  moistening  and  turning  the  mass  frequently ;  by 
this  means  not  only  do  all  the  seeds  grow,  but  the 
plants  come  up  quickly,  and  get  the  start  of  weeds. 
Two  pounds  of  seed  is  enough  for  an  acre  when 
sown  m  drills,  though  five  pounds  are  often  sown  on 
an  acre  broadcast.  Von  Thaer  uses  poudrette  in- 
stead  of  mould  in  the  preparation  of  his  seed.  The 
drills  should  be  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  the  plants 
thinned  to  six  or  eight  inches.  The  seed  should  be 
sown  early  in,  or  by  the  middle  of  May. 

The  after-culture  of  carrots  consists  in  keeping 
them  free  from  weeds,  and  the  surface  of  the  soU 
open  ;  and  as  the  rows  are  too  near  to  admit  of  the 
plough  or  cultivator,  the  hand-hoe  must  be  depend- 
ed on. 

The  best  mode  of  harvesting  the  crop  is  that  adopt- 
ed by  Col.  Meacham  ;•  turning  the  earth  from  the 
row  with  the  plough,  and  then  drawing  them  with 
the  hand. 

The  ordinary  yield  of  carrots  is  less  than  that  of 
ruta-baga  or  mangold-wurzel :  the  average  may  be 
stated  at  400  to  600  bushels  the  acre,  though  the 
product  has  exceeded  1000.  They  are  so  hardy, 
that  in  the  south  of  England  they  are  permitted  to 
stand  out  during  the  winter  ;  but  with  us  they  should 
be  gathered  and  secured,  like  other  roots,  in  October. 

The  carrot  is  eaten  by  all  sorts  of  farm-stock,  but 
is  particularly  useful  for  horses  and  milch  cows, 
serving  as  a  substitute  for  grain  with  the  former, 
and  increasing  and  improving  milk  when  fed  to  the 
latter.  Mr.  Burrows,  one  of  the  greatest  growers 
of  this  root,  has  fed  ten  cart-horses  with  them  du- 

*  See  Col.  Meacham's  letter  at  the  close  of  this  chapter. 


ROOT   CULTURE.  89 

ring  the  winter  months  and  up  to  June,  along  with 
hay,  and  witliout  the  addition  of  grain.  Such  does 
he  consider  their  economy  in  horse-feeding,  that  he 
states,  as  demonstrated  by  his  experience,  that  with 
the  assistance  of  lucerne  for  soiling  in  summer,  a 
workhorse  may  be  kept  the  entire  year  round  upon 
the  produce  of  only  one  acre  of  land.  INIr.  Burrows 
feeds  seventy  pounds  a  day  to  a  horse,  cut  or  whole, 
and  mixed  with  chopped  hay ;  reducing  the  quantity 
somewhat  in  the  short  days  of  winl!fer,  and  increas- 
ing it  a  little  in  the  spring  months.  Other  growers 
feed  only  forty  or  fifty  pounds  a  day.  An  acre  of 
carrots,  yielding  600  bushels,  fed  fifty-six  pounds  a 
day,  v/ould  therefore  be  equivalent  to  300  bushels 
of  oats,  fed  half  a  bushel  a  day,  to  a  working  horse. 
To  save  seed,  select  the  best  roots,  and  keep  them 
in  sand  in  the  cellar  till  spring ;  plant  them  out  ear- 
ly, and  the  seed  will  be  ripe  in  August.  Preserve  it 
on  the  seed-stalks  till  wanted. 

IV.  THE  PARSNIP 

Is  generally  believed  to  be  more  nutritive  than 
any  of  the  roots  we  have  treated  of,  and  the  pro- 
duct to  be  greater  than  that  of  the  carrot  or  potato, 
with  the  advantage  over  them  both  that  the  parsnip 
is  not  injured  by  frosts.  Yet  its  culture  as  a  field- 
crop  has  hitherto  been  very  limited. 

The. parsnip  may  be  grown  on  stiffer  land  than 
the  other  roots  we  have  named,  provided  it  has  a 
rich,  deep  tilth.  It  requires  the  same  treatment  as 
the  carrot,  though  we  would  prefer  intervals  of 
eighteen  inches  between  the  rows,  as  in  good  soil 
the  tops  grow  large.  The  Jersey  variety  is  prefer- 
red, on  account  of  small  growth  of  top.  Sow  early, 
at  the  rate  of  four  or  five  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre, 
and  keep  the  crop  free  from  weeds. 

V.  THE  TURNIP. 

The  turnip  culture,  it  has  been  remarked,  effected 
I— H 


90  AMERICAN  HUSBANDRY. 

as  great  and  beneficial  a  revolution  in  British  hus- 
bandry as  did  the  introduction  of  the  steam-engine 
and  spiiuiing-jenny  in  British  manufactures.  This 
crop  has  there  proved  a  great  source  of  wealth  and 
fertihty.  It  constitutes  by  far  the  most  important 
material  for  making  beef  and  mutton,  as  well  as  for 
enriching  or  keeping  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
From  an  experience  of  twenty  years  in  the  culture 
and  use  of  this  root,  we  are  persuaded  it  is  destined 
to  become  the  tneans  of  great  improvement  also  in 
American  husbandry,  when  our  farmers  shall  be- 
come more  familiar  with  its  culture,  and  mode  of 
preservation  and  feeding. 

In  the  fourth  number  of  the  third  volume  of  the 
Cultivator  we  gave  particular  directions  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  thi&  root,  with  several  illustrative  cuts, 
and  for  preserving  and  feeding  them  to  farm-stock 
and  in  our  March  number  of  the  present  volume  we 
have  given  an  estimate  of  the  product  and  value  of 
the  Swede,  compared  with  other  crops  which  we 
cultivate  for  feeding  and  fattening  cattle.  It  would 
be  superfluous  to  repeat  these  details  here,  inasmuch 
as  they  may  readily  be  referred  to  ;*  yet,  as  we  have 
many  patrons  who  may  not  possess  our  third  vol- 
ume, we  will  give  some  brief  directions. 

The  Swedish  turnip  or  ruta-baga  has  a  manifest 
advantage  over  all  other  varieties  of  turnip  as  cattle- 
food,  being  the  most  nutritive  in  its  properties,  and 
retaining  its  soundness  and  richness  much  the  lon- 
gest. The  common  varieties,  if  drawn,  as  all  turnips 
must  be  with  us,  become  pithy  or  spongy  before 
mid-winter,  and  lose  much  of  their  value  ;  while  the 
Swede  rather  improves  by  keeping  till  Februaiy, 
and  may  be  fed  in  a  perfectly  sound  state  till  June. 
And  it  posses.ses,  moreover,  one  quality,  not  known, 
that  we  recollect,  in  any  other  root,  that  of  increas- 
ing in  nutritious  matter  with  increase  of  size,  the 
largest  roots  being  specifically  heaviest  and  richest. 

*  See  also  Farmer^*  Itutnicter,  ch.  Root  Culture,  p.  204,  <(  stq. 


ROOT    CULTURE,  91 

The  reiterse  of  this  happens  with  other  roots,  par- 
ticularly with  beets  ;  those  of  medium  or  diminutive 
size  being  found  to  contain  a  much  greater  propor- 
tion of  saccharine  matter  than  very  large  ones.  For 
table  use,  the  early  rock-turnip  may  be  sown  in  the 
garden,  the  common  flat  or  green-top  for  autumn 
and  early  winter,  while  the  yellow  Aberdeen  should 
be  chosen  for  late  winter  and  spring  use,  being  the 
best  keeping  variety,  when  the  ruta-baga  is  either 
not  liked  or  not  to  be  had. 

All  kinds  of  the  turnip  prefer  a  sandy  and  dry  soil ; 
and  the  ruta-baga,  in  particular,  requires  a  rich  one. 
We  have  been  accustomed  to  raise  the  common  va- 
rieties as  a  second  crop,  i.  e.,  of  sowing  upon  a  grain 
stubble,  with  a  single  ploughing  and  harrowing,  after 
the  grain  is  harvested,  from  the  25th  of  July  to  the 
1st  of  August,  brushing  or  Hghtly  harrowing  in  the 
seed.  The  plants  must  be  thinned  and  cleaned  with 
a  hoe.  They  should  not  be  left  to  stand  nearer  than 
six  or  eight  inches.  If  sown  broadcast,  they  yield 
more,  and  are  of  a  more^  ^itable  size  for  the  table 
than  if  raised  in  drills. 

A  grass  ley  is  best  for  the  Swede.  If  an  old  sod, 
it  should  be  ploughed  in  autumn  or  early  in  the 
spring ;  and  it  should  be  manured  and  completely 
pulverized  on  the  eve  of  being  planted.  If  a  young 
clover  ley,  the  manure  may  be  spread,  ploughed  un- 
der, the  ground  harrowed,  and  the  seed  immediately 
put  in.  We  usually  select  the  latter.  We  cut  the 
clover  by  the  25th  of  June,  and  manure,  plough,  and 
sow  the  crop  within  the  ensuing  seven  days.  The 
seed  is  generally  sown  with  the  driU-barrow,  at  the 
rate  of  a  pound  to  two  pounds  an  acre.  It  is  prefer- 
able to  sow  thick  on  account  of  the  fly,  and  as  the 
crop  may  be  readily  thinned  when  the  plants  are  out 
of  danger. 

The  turnip-fly  often  commits  great  depredations 
upon  the  crop.  This  was  particularly  the  case  the 
last  season.     We  cannot  recommend  any  certam 


92  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

preventive.  It  has,  however,  been  stated,  that  mix- 
ing the  seed  with  sulphur  several  days  before  it  is 
to  be  sown,  and  then  sowing  the  sulphur  with  the 
seed,  has  preser\'ed  the  crop  from  the  fly.  If  this  is 
so,  it  is  owing  to  the  juices  of  the  young  plant  be- 
coming impregnated  with  the  subtle  properties  of 
the  sulphur,  which  is  obnoxious  to  every  species  of 
insect.  Another  mode,  which  has  been  successfully 
tried,  is  that  of  collecting  the  weeds  in  piles  around 
the  field  when  the  seed  is  sown,  and,  when  the  plants 
are  coming  up,  to  put  brimstone  and  fire  upon  the 
piles  on  the  windward  border,  which  will  contLime 
burning,  ordinarily,  foe  some  days,  and  the  smoke 
of  which  expels  or  destroys  the  fly. 

In  the  after-culture  of  the  Swede  there  is  great 
economy  in  taking  time  by  the  foretop — in  destroy- 
ing the  weeds  while  they  are  small.  The  cultivator 
or  hoe  should  be  passed  through  as  soon  as  the  rows 
can  be  well  discerned,  and  as  nigh  to  the  plants  as 
possible.  One  day's  work  is  worth  more  in  destroy- 
ing small  weeds  than  four  days'  work  is  in  destroy- 
ing large  ones,  which  overtop  and  choke  the  plants. 
The  objects  which  should  be  aimed  at  are  to  keep 
the  crop  clean,  to  thin  the  plants  to  eight  or  ten 
inches,  and  to  keep  the  surface  of  the  soil  mellow. 
With  a  timely  use  of  the  cultivator,  and  repeated 
once  or  twice,  these  objects  may  be  effected  without 
much  aid  from  the  hand-hoe. 

The  labour  of  harvesting  the  ruta-baga  is  less  than 
that  of  any  other  root,  except  perhaps  the  mangold- 
wurzel;  and,  indeed,  the  remark  will  apply  to  the 
labour  of  culture  without  any  qualification.  Other 
root-crops  require  attention  nearly  two  months 
longer  than  this  does,  and  at  a  season,  too,  when 
their  growth  is  slow,  and  the  labour,  consequently, 
tedious  and  expensive. 

The  turnip  should  be  the  last  crop  gathered,  be- 
cause it  grows  the  longest,  is  least  liable  to  suffer 
from  frost,  and  is  most  apt  to  be  injured  by  ferment- 


ROOT    CULTUliF.  93 

ation  when  collected  in  heaps  for  winter.  If  buried 
in  pits,  the  roots  should  be  raised  above  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  and  laid  up  to  terminate  in  a  ridge ; 
so  that  wlien  they  are  covered  with  straw  and  earth, 
the  heated  or  impure  air  of  the  pit  will  concentrate 
at  the  ridge  on  the  top,  where  it  should  be  suffered 
to  pass  off  freely  through  holes  made  for  this  pur- 
pose. 

The  cost  of  raising  the  ruta-baga  is  less  than  that 
of  raising  corn  or  any  of  the  other  roots.  The  av- 
erage product  may  be  stated  at  600  bushels,  and  it 
is  often  double  this  quantity.  The  root  is  an  excel- 
lent food  for  every  species  of  farm-stock,  and  is  very 
extensively  used  for  fattening  both  beef  and  mutton. 
Milch  cows  fed  with  ruta-baga  should  have  daily  ac- 
cess to  salt ;  and  should  the  milk  retain  any  flavour 
of  the  turnip,  it  may  be  got  rid  of  by  turning  a  pint 
of  hot  water  into  a  pailful  when'  it  is  drawn  from 
the  cow.  Tops  that  are  undergoing  fermentation, 
and  roots  decayed  or  unsound,  should  be  given  only 
to  hogs. 

THE    TURMP    FLEA 

Is  one  of  the  greatest  scourges  to  British  hus- 
bandry. The  Farmers'  Magazine  contains  a  learn- 
ed article  upon  this  insect  {Haltria  rumorium),  giving 
us  its  natural  history,  and  containing  an  examination 
also  of  the  various  remedies  which  have  been  rec- 
ommended to  prevent  its  destructive  ravages,  em 
bracing  the  applications  of  lime,  sulphur,  soot,  urine, 
fumigation,  &c.  Although  these  remedies,  or  some 
of  them,  are  admitted  to  have  had  partial  success, 
vet  none  of  them,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer, 
Mathew  M.  Milburn,  can  be  depended  upon  with 
any  degree  of  certainty.  He  thinks  Mr.  Poppy's 
plan  of  protecting  the  Swede  valuable,  which  is  to 
drill  between  the  rows  the  common  turnip,  which 
the  flea  seems  to  prefer  to  the  Swede,  and  when  tlie 
latter  has  acquired  the  rough  leaf,  to  plough  up  the 


94  AMER^AN    HUSBANDRY. 

common  tuniip :  yet  he  concludes  by  saying,  that  if 
attention  is  paid  to  the  following  particulars,  lie 
thinks  the  crop  may  be  generally  saved. 

"  1.  Hasten  the  germination  of  the  seed  by  all 
natural  means,  as  applying  some  portion  of  stimula- 
ting manure,  sowing  when  a  projjer  degree  of  moist- 
ure exists,  and  in  close  connexion  with  the  manure, 
to  secure  at  once  the  benefit  of  it  to  the  roots,  if  pos- 
sible, making  most  of  the  season  when  favourable. 

"  2.  Sow  a  liberal  quantity  of  seed,  never  less 
than  three  pounds,  and  sow  it  in  drills,  which  will 
hasten  the  vegetation  after  it  has  come  up. 

"  3.  Clear  the  land  perfectly,  that  no  weeds  may 
spring  up  to  impede  the  growth  of  the  plants,  and 
give  the  soil  a  liberal  supply  of  manure  suited  to  its 
character. 

"  4.  As  a  preventive,  rid  the  soil  by  hand-weeding, 
horse-hoeing,  &c.,hs  much  as  possible  of  weeds. 

"  5.  Select  good  seed,  and  test  it  before  sowing, 
to  see  how  many  germinate,  and  in  how  little  time." 

METHODS    OF    FEEDING    ROOTS. 

[The  following  paper  is  a  report  made  to  the  State 
Agricultural  Society  by  Judge  Buel,  as  chairman  of 
a  committee  appointed  to  report  on  the  best  vegeta- 
ble or  root  crops  for  feeding  cattle,  &c.,  and  em- 
braces much  valuable  information  on  the  subjects  of 
which  it.treats.  As  a  matter  of  course,  much  of  the 
information  communicated  is  derived  from  foreign 
sources,  as  at  that  time  A  nierican  farmers  had  had 
but  little  experience  either  in  the  cultivation  or  feed- 
ing of  roots.  Now  there  are  many  among  us  who 
are  able  to  coiToborate,  by  their  own  experience  in 
feeding  roots,  as  well  as  in  their  cultivation,  the  gen- 
eral correctness  of  the  positions  advanced  by  Judge 


ROOT   CULTURE.  95 

Biiel,  and  add  their  testimony  to  the  necessity  and 
importance  of  still  farther  extending  this  culture  in 
the  United  States.] 

The  culture  of  roots,  as  farm-crops  for  feeding  and 
fattening  domestic  animals,  is  of  such  recent  intro- 
duction, and  so  limited  among  us,  and  the  few  ex- 
periments that  have  been  made  to  ascertain  the  rel- 
ative value  of  these  roots  have  been  so  loosely  man- 
aged, that  the  committee  do  not  possess  the  data 
that  they  could  desire  to  make  a  satisfactory  report, 
adapted  exactly  to  our  practice.  But  they  are  nev- 
ertheless satisfied,  from  the  numerous  experiments 
which  have  been  made  in  Europe,  in  a  climate  very 
similar  to  our  own,  and  from  the  partial  ones  which 
have  been  made  among  us,  that  the  culture  of  roots 
is  destined  to  effect  here,  what  it  has  effected  else- 
where, a  great  and  salutary  change  in  husbandry ; 
not  only  as  furnishing  the  easiest  and  cheapest  means 
of  feeding  and  fattening  domestic  animals,  but  as  an 
important  source  of  fertility  to  the  farm  ;  and  of  se- 
curing the  main  point — ultimate  profit — to  the  owner 
or  cultivator. 

Under  these  strong  impressions  of  the  advantages 
of  encouraging  and  extending  root  culture,  your 
committee  proceed,  with  the  limited  means  at  their 
command,  to  fulfil  the  duties  assigned  them  by  the 
society. 

The  Highland  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland 
have  recently  awarded  liberal  premiums  for  experi- 
ments in  fattening  neat  cattle  ;  first,  upon  different 
kinds  of  roots,  as  the  potato,  turnip,  and  mangold- 
wurzel ;  second,  upon  raw  and  cooked  food  ;  and, 
third,  upon  roots  entirely,  and  a  mixture  of  roots, 
grain,  pulse,  and  oil-cake.  These  experiments  have 
been  made  with  a  view  of  accurately  ascertaining 
the  comparative  value  of  each  kind  of  root  and  other 
food,  and  the  economy  of  each  mode  of  feeding  it. 
The  experiments  have  been  numerous.    They  have 


96 


AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 


been  made  upon  ten  to  thirty  head  of  cattle  at  ^  time, 
and  they  have  been  continued  from  three  to  sis 
months.  The  animals  were  weighed  or  measured  at 
the  lime  of  starting  the  experiment,  at  the  close  of 
it,  and  generally  at  intermediate  periods,  particularly 
when  the  food  was  varied  ;  and  the  quantity  of  root? 
and  other  food  given  was  accurately  noted ;  so  that 
the  result  has  indicated  the  relative  value  of  each 
kind  of  food  in  the  fattening  process,  and  the  best 
mode  of  feeding  it.  The  committee  proceed  to  state, 
in  a  summary  way,  the  results  of  some  of  these  ex 
periments. 

1.  The  relative  value  of  different  roots. 
Mr.  Howden,  with  a  view  to  the  experiment,  set 
apart  the  product  of  two  acres  of  mangold-wurzel, 
amounting  to  fifty  tons,  five  acres  of  Swedish  tur- 
nips, being  140  tons,  and  two  acres  of  potatoes, 
weighing  29  tons  4  cwt.  The  experiment  was  made 
with  21  head  of  cattle,  which  received,  in  addition  to 
the  roots,  a  few  distillers'  grains  and  a  little  straw. 
The  following  table  shows  the  roots  appropriated  to 
each  lot,  and  the  monthly  increase  of  the  animals  in 
girth.  The  abstract  is  made  from  the  prize  essays 
of  the  society,  which  cannot  now  be  referred  to ;  but 
the  impression  is,  that  in  all  the  experiments  which 
we  quote,  the  roots  fed  to  each  lot  was  precisely  the 
same  in  weight.  Lot  No.  1  was  fed  from  the  pro- 
duct of  one  acre  of  potatoes,  one  acre  of  mangold- 
wurzel,  and  one  acre  of  Swedish  turnips ;  No.  2 
from  one  acre  of  potatoes  and  two  acres  of  Swedish 
turnips ;  and  No.  3  from  one  acre  of  mangold-wur- 
zel and  two  acres  of  Swedish  turnips. 


Date. 

loi  No.  1. 

I-nt  No.  i. 

IM  No.  3. 

1831,  Nov.  30 

35  feet  8  inches. 

.35  feet  9  inches 

35  feet  8  inches. 

Dec.  30 

36    "  C      " 

:iC    "  7      " 

36    "   6      " 

1832,  Jan.  30 

38    "   2      " 

.38    "   4      " 

33    "   2      " 

March  1 

39    "   7      " 

39    "  8      " 

39    "   6      " 

"   30 

40    "   8      " 

40    "10      " 

40    "   6      " 

April  30 

41    •'   4      " 

41    "   7      " 

41    "  3      » 

RJOT    CULTURE. 


97 


Twenty-eight  tons  of  mangold-wurzel  and  Swe- 
dish turnips  were  withdrawn  to  feed  other  stock. 

On  the  30th  of  January  Mr.  Howden  took  a  pair 
of  cattle  out  of  each  lot,  and  fed  No.  1  with  potatoes 
and  water,  No.  2  with  Swedish  turnips,  and  No.  3 
with  mangold-wurzel.  The  following  shows  their 
relative  increase  in  three  months. 

Lot  2, 
Svredish  turnips. 


1832,  Jan.  30  10  feet  8  inches.  10  feet  5  inches.  10  feet  4  inches. 
April  30  11    "    6      "        11    "    3      "        11    "   2 

When  the  cattle  were  sold,  the  purchasers  agreed 
that  the  lot  fed  on  Swedish  turnips  were  from  7*.  to 
105.  ($1  68  to  $2  40)  a  head  better  than  the  other 
lots.  The  average  advance  upon  the  original  value 
of  each  was  £Q  125.,  and  the  cost  of  the  grains  being 
deducted,  there  remained  jG120  ($576)  in  return  for 
the  eight  acres  of  produce  consumed,  or  $72  for  each 
acre. 

From  the  above  statement  it  would  seem  there  is 
no  great  difference  in  the  fattening  properties  of  the 
three  kinds  of  roots ;  and  that,  so  far  as  measure  or 
weight  is  concerned,  it  matters  little  which  are  em- 
ployed in  feeding.  We  will  note  here,  for  future  ref- 
erence, the  product  per  acre  of  each  kind  of*roots, 
upon  Mr.  Howden's  ground,  adding  the  product  in 
bushels  of  56  lbs. 

The  potatoes  gave        12  tons  4  cwt.,  equal  to  488  bushels. 
The  mangold-wurzel   25  tons  "        1000        " 

The  ruta-baga  28  tons  "        1120        " 

2.  The  comparative  economy  of  feeding  raw  or  pre- 
pared food. 
In  1833  the  society  offered  a  premium  of  30  sover- 
eigns for  the  best  report,  founded  on  actual  experi- 
ment made  for  that  purpose,  on  a  number  of  oxen  or 
heifers,  not  fewer  than  six,  the  animals  to  be  of  the 
same  breed,  age,  and  sex,  and  the  term  of  feeding  not 
less  than  three  months.     Several  reports  were  re- 


98  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

ceived  and  published  in  1834.    From  these  we  ab- 
stract the  following : 

Mr.  Walker  made  his  experiment  with  six  two- 
year  old  heifers  and  four  two-year  old  steers.  Each 
j>arcel  was  divided  into  two  lots,  and  fed  on  like 
food,  except  that  one  half  received  their  food  raw, 
and  the  other  half  in  a  steamed  or  cooked  state. 
The  food  consisted  of  Swedish  turnips,  potatoes,  and 
crushed  beans,  with  a  little  salt  and  straw.  At  the 
end  of  three  months,  it  was  found  that  the  three  heif- 
ers fed  on  steamed  food  had  gained  48  1-2  stone,* 
or  679  lbs.,  and  the  three  heifers  fed  upon  raw  food 
liad  gained  45  1-2  stone ;  but  the  quantity  consumed 
by  the  first  lot  exceeded  that  of  the  latter. 

Cost  of  feeding  on  steamed  food         .        .        867  40 
"  "        on  raw  food         .        ,        .  50  17 

The  first  cost  more  thanlhe  last  .  .  817  23 
Deducting  the  first  cost,  and  the  price  of  fattening 
from  the  price  paid  by  the  butcher,  there  remained 
a  profit  on  the  three  heifers  fed  with  steamed  food 
of  9*. ;  while  the  profit  on  the  three  fattened  with 
raw  food  amounted  to  £3  lOs.  Gd.  By  a  like  esti- 
mate, the  loss  on  the  steers  fed  with  steamed  food 
was  3s.  8(1.  and  the  profit  on  those  fed  with  raw  food 
lOs.  6d. 

Andrew  Howden  made  a  like  experiment  with  18 
cattle  in  six  lots.  Their  increase  and  expense  of 
keeping  for  three  months,  from  the  20th  March  to 
the  20th  June,  were  as  follows  : 


Three  heifers  on  raw  turnips  .  392 

"  on  steamed  turnigs     .  532 

•*  on  raw  potatoes  .  600 

"  on  steamed  potatoes    .  572 

Three  steers  on  raw  potatoes  and  com  722 

"  on  boiled  potatoes  and  corn  689 


lacr.  in  lb*.  Expnuv. 


833    12 

42  72 
49  68 
49  68 
54  16 
54  40 


John  Baswell  f«d  ten  homed  cattle.    The  expense 
*  A  stone  is  14  lbs. 


ROOT  CULTURE.  99 

of  keeping  the  five  cattle  on  raw  food  was  $154  10, 

while  that  of  the  cattle  on  prepared  food  was 
$16i  40.  On  being  slaughtered  the  two  lots  appear- 
ed to  be  very  similar,  but  the  particular  weight  is 
not  mentioned. 

3.  Relative  economy  of  feeding  with  turnips  alone,  or 
with  turnips  and  other  more  expensive  food. 

Robert  Stevenson  was  the  successful  competitor 
for  the  society's  premium.  He  took  18  oxen ;  their 
live  weight  was  ascertained  at  the  beginning,  at  the 
end,  and  at  intermediate  periods  of  the  experiment, 
which  continued  119  days.  The  cattle  were  divided 
into  three  lots  of  six  beasts  each,  and  a  correct  ac- 
count was  kept  of  the  weight  of  food  consumed  by 
each  lot.  Lot  1  was  allowed  linseed-cake,  bruised 
beans,  and  bruised  oats,  in  addition  to  turnips,  and 
during  the  last  24  days  of  the  experiment,  20  lbs.  of 
potatoes  were  given  per  day  to  each.  Lot  2  receiv- 
ed the  same  allowance  except  the  linseed-cake  and 
half  the  potatoes.  And  lot  3  was  fed  upon  turnips 
alone.  The  cost  of  the  keep  of  each  animal,  during 
the  119  days,  was  as  follows : 

Total  cost  of  feeding  one  beast  of  lot  I        ,        $24  62 
do.  do.  do.    of  lot  2        .  18  48 

do.  do.  do.    of  lot  3        .  9  27 

The  improvement  in  live  weight  was  as  follows : 
First  lot  increased  iti  weight        .        108  stone 
Second        do.  do.  .        101      " 

Third  do.  do.  .  49      " 

Abstracting  the  cost  of  feeding  from  the  value  of 
the  increased  weight,  the  loss  and  profit  would  stand 
as  below : 

Loss  on  feeding  lot  1        .        .        .       $18  GO 
Profit  on  feeding  lot  2        ...  953 

Profit  on  feeding  lot  3        ...  1226 

"  Thus,  when  turnips  alone  were  used,  a  profit  of 
twenty-two  per  cent,  was  realized ;  where  beans  and 


100  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

« 

oats  were  used  along  with  the  turnips,  the  profit  was 
diminished  to  eight  and  a  half  per  cent. ;  but  wheu 
still  more  expensive  food  was  tried,  that  is,  grain 
and  linseed-cake,  along  with  turnips  and  potatoes,  a 
loss  was  sustained  of  no  less  than  12.316  per  cent." 
Lot  1  were  the  largest  oxen.  They  were  fed  each 
with  132  lbs.  per  day  of  Swedish  turnips  ;  lot  2  were 
fed  each  with  120  lbs.  of  the  same  per  day  ;  and  lot 
3,  being  the  smallest,  received  but  115  lbs.  per  day, 
and  for  twenty-four  days  but  ninety-two  pounds. 

Lot  1  cost  8.968  cents  for  every  pound  of  increased  live  weight. 

Lot  2    "    7.94  " 

Lots    "    6.78  "  "  "  " 

The  turnips  were  estimated  at  eight  cents  per  cwt. ; 
the  potatoes  at  36  cents  per  cwt. ;  oats  and  beans 
at  84  cents  per  bushel,  and  linseed-cake  at  one  ..nd 
a  half  cent  per  pound. 

"  In  conclusion,"  says  Mr.  Stevenson,  on  this  part 
of  the  subject,  "  we  give  it  as  our  opinion,  that  who- 
ever feeds  cattle  on  turnips  alone,  will  have  no  reason, 
on  the  score  of  profit,  to  regret  their  not  having  em- 
ployed more  expensive  auxiharies  to  hasten  the  fat- 
tening process." 

It  would  seem  pretty  evident,  from  the  foregoing 
experiments,  that  ruta-baga  and  mangold- wurzel  are 
the  best  root-crops  for  feeding  cattle.  The  profit  of 
cultivating  and  feeding  these  roots  will  be  more  man- 
ifest, if  we  compare  their  product  to  the  acre  with 
that  of  hay,  potatoes,  and  the  coarse  grains  whir^h 
we  feed  to  fattening  animals.  To  enable  the  com- 
mittee to  make  this  comparison,  they  assume  the 
following  as  the  average  products  of  crops,  and  at- 
tach to  each  of  these  an  estimate  of  their  marketable 
value.  Both  the  product  and  the  prices  will  greatly 
vary;  but  those  assumed  are  deemed  sufficiently 
correct  for  comparison. 


An  acre 

of  grass 

2  tons  at  $10 

do. 

corn 

40  bushels  at  75    cts.     . 

do. 

oals 

30 

do.      at  J'i  cts.     . 

do. 

buckvv'ieat 

30 

do.     at  50    cts.     . 

do. 

potatoes 

150 

do.      at  25    cts.     . 

do. 

rutahaga 

600 

do.      at  25    cts.     . 

do. 

nmn.-wurzel 

COO 

do.     at  25    cts.     . 

ROOT    CULTURE.  101 

$20  00 
30  00 
11  25 
15  00 
37  50 
150  00 
150  00 

Estimating  the  cost  of  I'n  roots,  in  labour,  at 
twenty  dollars  an  acre  more  than  that  of  the  hay, 
oats,  and  buckwheat,  it  still  leaves  a  great  disparity 
in  the  profits ;  and  considering  the  cost  of  culture 
^qual  to  that  of  Indian  corn,  there  is  a  manifest  ad- 
vauiage  in  the  turnips  and  mangold-wurzel  over  the 
corn-crop  as  a  material  for  cattle  food.  Good  beef 
cannot  be  made  on  hay  alone  in  winter:  and  those 
who  do  not  feed  roots  must  resort  to  some  more  ex- 
pensive food,  as  the  meal  of  Indian  corn,  oats,  buck- 
wheat, &c.  The  turnips  and  mangold-wurzel,  on 
the  contrary,  with  the  aid  of  perhaps  a  little  straw, 
will  serve- of  themselves  to  feed  and  fatten  animals. 
In  this  matter  the  chairman  can  speak  from  expe- 
rience. He  purchased  four  oxen  a  little  before 
Christmas,  and  kept  them  till  some  time  in  April ; 
after  a  short  time,  they  ate  each  two  bushels  a  day 
of  ruta-baga :  they  would  eat  very  little  else,  though 
laid  before  them,  not  even  linseed-cake.  They 
made  good  beef,  and  afforded  a  handsome  profit  on 
the  turnips  consumed. 

If  we  now  assume  that  an  ox  will  require  a  quar- 
ter of  a  hundred  of  hay  per  diem  to  keep  him  in  good 
condition,  and  that  it  will  require  an  addition  of  four 
quarts  of  corn  meal,  or  eight  quarts  of  crushed  oats 
or  buckwheat  per  diem  to  fatten  him ;  and  if  we 
consider  1 12  pounds,  or  two  bushels  of  roots,  equiva- 
lent to  a  ration  of  hay  and  grain,  then  the  several 
crops  will  feed  an  animal  as  below. 

One  acre  of  grass  and  half  an  acre  of  corn  will  feed  160  days. 

One  and  a  half  acres  of  mangold-wurzel  or  Swe- 
dish turnips  will  feed       450  days. 

One  acre  of  grass  and  one  acre  of  oats  or  buckwheat 
will  feed  .  ....        160  days. 


102  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

Two  acres  of  Swedish  turnips  or  mantrold-wonEel 
will  feed .        COO  days. 

One  acre  of  potatoes  will  fpt-d    ....  75  days. 

One  acre  ol  Swedish  tutiii;<s  or  uiangold-wurzel 
will  feed '.        300 days. 

Making  very  liberal  allowance  for  the  difference 
in  the  expense  of  raising  these  crops,  and  for  any 
error  the  committee  may  have  made  in  fixing  the  dai- 
ly rations,  or  in  the  produce  of  each  to  the  acre,  they 
think  that  no  doubt  can  for  a  moment  be  entertained, 
that  the  Swedish  turnip  and  the  mangold-wurzel  are 
decidedly  the  best  crops  that  can  be  raised  for  feed- 
ing cattle. 

The  committee  have  no  doubt  that  the  sugar-beet 
and  carrot  offer  advantages  nearly  or  quite  equal 
to  the  roots  above  recommended.  Their  product 
and  nutritive  properties  are  very  similar,  and  the 
expense  of  culture  is  not  very  dissimilar.  The  su- 
gar-beet is  probably  riclier  in  nutriment  than  the 
mangold-wurzel,  though  its  product  is  ordinarily 
less.  The  carrot  may  require  more  labour  in  the 
culture ;  but  it  is  superior  as  food,  particularly  for 
horses. 

Arthur  Young  highly  extols  the  carrot.  Upon  the 
product  of  three  acres  of  this  root,  he  assures  us  he 
Kept,  for  more  than  five  months,  twenty  work-horses, 
four  bullocks,  and  six  milch  cows  ;  nor  did  the  ani- 
mals during  that  period,  he  adds,  taste  any  food  ex- 
cept a  little  hay.  Our  enterprising  fellow-citizen, 
Col.  Meacham,  of  Oswego,  has  gone  largely  into  the 
culture  of  carrots  as  cattle-feed,  as  well  as  many  of 
his  neighbours ;  and  they  speak  highly  of  the  profits 
of  the  culture. 

Some  very  satisfactory  experiments  have  also 
been  made  among  us,  on  a  limited  scale,  in  cultiva- 
ting and  feeding  the  sugar-beet.  There  seems  to  be 
little  doubt,  from  the  high  state  of  p)erfection  and  of 
profit  which  the  business  has  arrived  at  in  France 
and  Germany,  that  the  culture  of  this  beet  will  soon 


ROOT    CULTURE.  103 

be  extensively  gone  into  in  this  country  for  the  pur- 

Eose  of  making  sugar ;  and  if  so,  the  residuum  of  the 
eet  will  form  an  important  item  in  the  material  for 
fattening  cattle. 

There  are  other  advantages  resulting  from  root 
culture  which  should  not  be  overlooked.  It  tends 
greatly  to  increase  the  quantity  of  manure  on  the 
farm,  to  meliorate  the  texture  of  the  soil,  and  to  fur- 
nish excellent  alternating  crops  in  convertible  hus- 
bandry. In  selecting  for  culture,  the  farmer  should 
choose  the  roots  that  are  best  adapted  to  his  soil. 
The  turnips  prefer  a  dry,  sandy  soil ;  the  beet  a  clay 
loam. 

As  to  the  best  means  of  cultivating  these  crops, 
the  committee  summarily  remark,  that  the  product 
and  profit  will  materially  depend  upon  the  following 
contingencies;  viz.,  that  the  soil  be  dry;  that  it  be 
rich  ;  that  it  be  deeply  worked ;  that  it  be  thoroughly 
pulverized ;  and  that  the  after-culture  be  well  man- 
aged. The  implements  necessary  to  cultivate  them 
advantageously,  in  addition  to  the  plough  and  har- 
row, are  the  drill-barrow  and  cultivator.  The  sea- 
son for  sowing  the  beet  is  from  the  10th  to  the  20th 
May;  and  for  the  Swedish  turnip  from  the  10th  to 
the  25th  June.  The  drill  or  row  culture  is  decidedly 
the  best.  A  detail  of  the  whole  process  of  culture 
would  occupy  too  much  space  for  this  report ;  and 
it  is  unnecessary,  as  these  processes  are  already  un- 
derstood by  many,  and  have  been  minutely  described 
in  the  agricultural  periodicals  of  the  day.  The  com- 
mittee will  merely  recommend,  in  conclusion,  that 
the  roots  be  always  cut  previously  to  being  fed  to 
cattle,  for  which  purpose  machines  may  be  procured 
at  a  moderate  charge,  which  will  cut  a  bushel  in 
from  one  to  three  minutes.  If  cut,  the  roots  will  be 
eaten  entirely  ;  if  not  cut,  a  portion  is  apt  to  be  re- 
jected and  wasted. 

The  chairman  has  received  a  communication  from 
Col.  Meacham,  stating  his  mode  of  cultivating  the 


104  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

carrot,  the  product,  and  manner  of  using  the  crop. 
He  cultivates  them  in  drills  from  20  to  24  inches 
apart ;  he  gets  one  thousand  bushels  an  acre,  at  an 
expense  of  $25  to  $30  ;  he  kept  six  work-horses  on 
them  from  November,  1836,  to  June,  1837,  without 
grain,  and  they  remained  in  good  plight,  and  per- 
formed as  well  as  he  ever  had  horses  perform  ;  and 
he  thinks  they  are  worth  double  as  much  for  stock 
as  ruta-baga. 

Upon  the  subject  of  the  carrot  culture,  which  is 
pe.liaps  less  understood  among  us  than  that  of  the 
beet  and  turnip,  the  committee  will  add,  that  this  rool 
thrives  best  in  a  sandy  loam,  light,  moist,  but  not 
wet,  and  of  great  depth ;  in  which  the  plough,  going 
to  the  beam,  brings  to  the  surface  nothing  that  is  not 
fit  for  vegetation.  The  ground  should  be  ploughed 
immediately  preceding  the  sowing.  In  Suffolk,  Eng- 
land, they  sow  8  lbs.  seed,  broadcast,  to  the  acre ; 
and  the  crop  is  from  400  to  500  bushels.  To  horses 
they  are  considered  superior  to  any  other  food. 
Two  bushels  of  carrots  and  one  of  chaff  is  the  per 
diem  allowance  to  a  horse  ;  or  seven  bushels  of  car- 
rots and  one  bushel  of  oats  is-  the  allowance  for  a 
week.  They  are  also  profitably  fed  to  all  other  farm 
stock.  They  are  raised  in  Suffolk  without  manure,  at 
an  expense  of  9rf.  (18  cents)  per  bushel.  The  yield  of 
the  carrot  is  often  from  700  to  1000  bushels  the  acre 
The  crop  is  gathered  by  making  a  deep  furrow  near 
to  the  drill ;  when  a  man  seizes,  draws  the  top  to  the 
furrow,  and  pulls  them  up  with  great  facility. 

Another  root,  the  parsnip,  is  deserving  of  notice, 
though  its  partial  culture  hitherto  will  hardly  enti- 
tle it  to  be  classed  among  field-crops.  It  is  believed 
to  be  the  most  nutritious  root  of  any  that  have  been 
named  ;  is  as  easily  cultivated  as  the  carrot  or  the 
beet :  and  has  this  advantage  over  all  the  others, 
that  its  value  is  not  impaired  by  frost. 

From  the  preceding  views,  the  conimittee  do  not 
hesitate  to  recommend  the  extension  of  root  culture 


ROOT    CULTURE.  105 

as  the  most  ready  means  of  keeping  up  the  fertility 
of  our  farms  and  of  increasing  the  profits  of  their 
cultivation. 

CARROT  AND  RUTA-BAOA  CULTURE. 

The  following  is  a  brief  account  of  my  method  of 
cultivating  the  carrot  and  ruta-baga.  My  opinion  in 
regard  to  profit  is  in  favour  of  the  carrot.  As  to  the 
relative  value,  I  have  entertained  the  opinion  that 
the  same  weight  of  carrots  is  worth,  for  stock,  near- 
ly double  that  of  the  ruta-baga.  I  fed  my  work- 
horses on  carrots  from  November,  1836,  till  .Tune, 
1837,  three  span  ;  they  remained  in  good  plight,  and 
performed  as  much  as  I  ever  had  any  within  that 
length  of  time  ;  they  ate  no  grain ;  nothing  but  hay 
and  carrots,  thrown  whole  into  the  manger.  1  have 
raised  one  thousand  bushels  of  carrots  or  over,  year- 
ly, for  three  years  past,  on  an  acre  of  land. 

In  1836  1  raised  between  two  and  three  thousand 
bushels  of  ruta-bagas.  They  produced  from  six  to 
seven  hundred  bushels  to  the  acre.  They  grew  very 
large :  the  largest  one  weighed  thirty  and  a  half 
pounds.  The  land  was  stony  and  gravelly,  made 
mellow  and  ridged  high  with  the  plough,  two  and  a 
half  feet  or  over  apart  from  centre  to  centre.  The 
seed  was  planted  about  the  10th  of  June,  which  I 
found  to  be  late  enough.  .  Method  of  planting :  one 
man  goes  forward  with  the  hoe,  and  makes  marks 
for  the  seed  in  the  centre  of  the  ridges,  about  twen- 
ty inches  apart,  which  is  very  quick  done,  nearly  as 
fast  as  a  man  would  walk ;  another  man  follows  as 
fast  with  the  seed,  and  drops  from  four  to  five  seeds 
into  the  place  with  his  thumb  and  fore  finger,  and 
covers  them  at  the  same  instant  with  the  remaining 
three  fingers.  In  this  way  I  think  a  smart  man 
would  drop  the  seeds  and  cover  two  acres  a  day. 

The  same  year,  1836, 1  raised  one  acre  of  carrots, 
which  produced  over  one  thousand  busliels.  I  meas- 
ured one  rod  of  the  ground  whe-e  the  carrots  ap- 

I— I 


106  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

pearcd  to  be  the  best :  the  produce  of  this  rod  waa 
at  the  rate  of  over  fifteen  hundred  bushels  per  acre. 
Multitudes  of  carrots  from  this  acre  measured  four 
and  five  inches  in  diameter  at  the  butt :  the  longest 
one  that  we  found  measured  over  two  feet.  The 
soil  was  deep,  gravelly,  and  stony,  originally  covered 
with  large  sugar  maple,  interspersed  with  heavy  bass 
and  hemlock.  I  cannot  admit  that  the  whole  ex- 
pense of  labour  on  the  one  acre  of  carrots,  including 
the  harvesting,  was  over  thirty  or  thirty-five  dollars. 
The  land  on  which  they  grew  had  been  occupied 
the  year  previous  with  carrots,  potatoes,  com,  ruta- 
bagas, beans,  and  other  garden  vegetables,  and  ma- 
nured with  long  manure  on  the  one  half,  and  hog- 
manure  on  the  other.  Between  the  1st  and  5th  of 
May  (it  having  been  previously  deeply  ploughed)  I 
commenced  work  in  the  morning  with  six  or  seven 
men  and  boys,  three  horse-team  ploughs  and  har- 
rows ;  and  at  12  o'clock,  M.,  the  same  day,  the 
Slanting  was  finished.  I  have  no  doubt  that  Judge 
luel,  had  he  been  present,  would  have  consider- 
ed the  planting  of  the  seeds  to  be  slightly  done ; 
but  the  crop  was  a  good  one,  being  one  thousand 
bushels  or  over  per  acre.  First  we  ploughed  the 
ground  very  deep,  and  harrowed  the  furrows  level ; 
then  took  each  man  his  hoe,  reversing  the  edge  of  it, 
and  expeditiously  scraping  or  dragging  the  hoe  along 
the  surface  of  the  ground  twenty  or  twenty-four 
inches  apart,  bearing  on  the  hoe  sufficient  to  make 
a  large  mark  or  track,  and  to  remove  the  stone  and 
other  encumbrances  from  the  track  or  drill ;  and  so 
on,  back  and  forth,  until  the  whole  acre  was  marked 
out  in  drills :  then  each  man  or  boy,  taking  a  small 
dish  with  seed  in  one  hand,  and  stooping  down  so 
as  to  bring  the  other  hand  as  near  the  ground  aa 
might  be  to  prevent  the  wind  from  blowing  the 
seeds  out  of  their  place,  walked  quickstep,  each  one 
strewing  the  seeds  according  to  their  own  judgment; 
having,  however,  previously  received  a  good  lecture 


ROOT  CULTURE.  107 

from  the  master  not  to  strew  them  too  thick.  When 
this  was  done,  each  man  took  the  hoe  again,  and 
half  reversing  it,  with  the  edge  up,  went  through 
again  with  an  increased  movement,  gently  puddUng 
or  stirring  the  soil  in  the  centre  of  the  drills.  A 
piece  of  board  or  stick,  four  or  five  feet  in  length, 
will  answer  this  last  purpose  about  as  well  as  a  hoe. 
A  great  part  of  the  seed  sown  by  some  farmers  is 
lost  by  deep  covering.  A  shower  of  rain  will  bring 
them  up  without  any  covering  where  the  soil  is 
loose  and  well  fitted.  The  ground  between  the 
drills  ought  to  be  brushed  over  with  the  hoe  imme- 
diately after  they  begin  to  come  up,  or  before,  if  you 
can  see  where  the  drills  are,  so  that  you  can  avoid 
disturbing  the  carrots. 

I  think  a  man  may  cultivate  three  acres  Of  carrots 
with  the  same  amount  of  expense  and  labour,  by 
keeping  in  advance  of  the  weeds,  that  he  can  one  acre 
in  the  common  way,  with  the  weeds  in  advance  of 
him  a  number  of  days.  When  the  carrots  get  up 
ten  or  twelve  inches  high,  I  plough  between  the 
rows  with  a  horse  again  and  again.  When  I  har- 
vest them,  I  run  a  strong  team  and  plough  as  near 
the  outside  rows  as  possible,  and  very  deep,  turning 
the  furrow  from  the  rows ;  the  hands  follow  after, 
and  pull  them  out  by  the  tops  with  ease,  a  number 
at  once,  and  throw  them  in  heaps  ;  and  so  I  proceed 
until  the  piece  is  finished.  If  there  was  any  differ- 
ence in  the  crop,  it  was  in  favour  of  that  part  where 
the  long  manure  was  spread  the  year  before.  I 
planted  the  same  piece  in  1837  without  any  addition- 
al manure.  The  crop  was  about  one  quarter  less. 
I  have  no  doubt  that  it  would  be  a  great  benefit  to 
our  farmers  who  keep  stock  to  cultivate  the  carrot, 
especially  for  milch  cows.  To  those  who  are  not 
experienced  in  the  cultivation  of  the  carrot,  I  would 
say,  sow  your  seeds  in  drills,  at  least  twenty  or 
twenty-four  inches  apart ;  the  earlier  in  the  season 
the  better,  if  your  land  is  in  good  order;  if  they 


108  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

stand  thin  in  the  drills,  they  will  be  large ;  if  very 
thick,  it  will  spoil  the  crop. 

Thomas  S.  Meacham. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


INDIAN   CORN. 


Varieties  of  Indian  Com. — To  render  Corn  prolific— Culture  of 
Com.—  Experiments  in  producing  improved  varieties  of  lixiiaa 
Com — Experiments  in  Harvesting  Corn. — Selection  of  Seed, 
and  Early  Maturity. 

VARIETIES    OF   INDIAN   CORN. 

Dr.  Brown,  in  an  essay  lately  published  in  the 
Farmers'  Cabinet,  enumerates  thirty-five  varieties 
of  Indian  com  which  he  has  in  his  posses.sion.  He 
divides  them  into  five  classes,  besides  sub-classes. 
We  give  the  names,  as  well  for  future  reference  as 
matter  of  curiosity. 

A.    YELLOW  CORN. 

A.  a.  No.  1,  Genuine  gourd-seed,  of  24  rows ;  2, 
of  22  rows ;  3,  of  20  rows  ;  4,  of  18  rows ;  5,  of  16 
rows  ;  6,  of  14  rows :  7,  of  12  rows. 

A.  b.  No.  8,  King  Philip  Indian  corn,  8  rows. 

A.  c.  No.  9,  Sioux,  or  early  flint,  12  rows  ;  10, 
Sioux  of  Pennsylvania,  12  rows;  11,  Sioux  and 
gourd-seed  mixed,  16  rows. 

B.    WHITE  INDIAN  CORN. 

B.  a.  White  flint.  No.  12,  genuine  white  flint,  12 
rows,  Virginia;  13,  white  flint,  10  rows;  14,  early 
white  flint. 

3  b.  White  flour.    No.  15,  from  Peru,  8  rows; 


INDIAN    CORN.  109 

16,  Pennsylvania,  8  rows,  called  Smith's  early  white ; 

17,  New-Jersey,  8  rows  ;  18,  New- York,  10  rows. 
B.  a.  and  B.  b.  No.  19,  Mandan  Indian  com,  a 

mixture  of  12  and  15. 

B.  c.  No.  20,  Early  sugar  or  sweet  com,  12  rows, 
grains  shrunken. 

C.    HiEMETITE,   OR  BLOOD-RED  INDIAN  CORN. 

No.  21,  Common-sized,  12  rows  and  red  cob. 

No.  22,  Red  cob  with  white  grains. 

No.  23,  Red  cob  with  yellow  grains. 

No.  24,  Red  cob  with  brown  grains. 

No.  25,  Red  cob  with  white  gourd-seed. 

No.  26,  Red  cob  with  gourd-seed  and  yellow  flint. 

No.  27,  White  cob  with  yellow  grains. 

No.  28,  Speckled  red  and  yellow  grains  on  a  white 
cob. 

No.  29,  The  same  on  a  red  cob. 

No.  30,  Dwarfhsemetite,  commonly  called  Guinea 
corn. 

D.    BLUE  CORN. 

No.  31,  Blue  com,  10  rows. 

E.  No.  32,  The  corn  of  Texas  ;  each  griin  is  en- 
closed in  a  pod  or  husk,  and  the  ear  in  a  husk. 

No.  33,  Com  found  in  the  envelope  of  a  Mexican 
mummy. 

No.  34,  Cobbett  com,  grown  in  England. 

No.  35,  The  famous  Button  corn. 

We  take  the  liberty  of  adding  to  the  above  list 
five  other  varieties  in  our  possession,  seemingly  not 
embraced  therein,  viz. : 

1.  Lake  Superior  com,  ears  six  inches,  12  rows, 
reddish  brown  colour,  said  to  be  very  early ;  from 
S.  Robinson. 

2.  Squaw  corn,  8  rows,  blue  grain,  also  early. 

3.  Corn  from  Trieste,  on  the  Adriatic ;  ears  six 
inches,  and  serai-conical,  12  and  14  rows,  orango 
yellow. 


ifO  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

4.  Rice  com,  cars  four  inches,  and  grains  like  rice. 

5.  A  yellow  12  rowed  com,  from  Vermont,  ears 
considerably  smaller  than  the  Dutton. 

Dr.  Brown  gives  four  criteria  (the  first  three  from 
Mr.  Taylor)  v/hich  should  be  regarded  in  selecting 
our  seed-corn,  viz.  :  1.  The  most  stalk.  2.  The  lar- 
gest cob.  3.  Longest  grain.  And,  4.  Early  growth 
and  quick  culture.  The  reason  for  the  first  is,  that  a 
man  can  gather  more  grain,  stalk,  blade,  top,  shuck, 
and  cob,  of  large  than  he  can  of  small  stalks.  This 
quality,  however,  would  not  be  so  highly  esteemed 
in  the  North,  for  tall,  large-growing  com  would  be 
here  later  in  ripening ;  and  besides,  com  of  this  de- 
scription will  not  bear  planting  so  thick,  and,  conse- 
quently, will  not  yield  so  much  per  acre  as  varieties 
of  more  diminutive  growth.     2.  The  large  cob  is 

{)referred,  because  it  gives  the  most  com.  3.  The 
ongest  grain,  because  it  decidedly  settles  the  supe- 
riority of  the  farinaceous  product. — We  dissent  from 
this  conclusion,  and  think  the  superiority  in  farina- 
ceous product  depends  more  upon  weight  than  the 
lejiglh  of  the  kernel.  The  Dutton,  it  will  be  seen  by 
the  communication  of  J,  Wright,  has  weighed  69 
lbs.  the  bushel.  This  has  a  short  kernel ;  and  yet 
we  doubt  if  any  long-kemelled  variety  can  be  foimd 
to  weigh  so  heavy,  or  to  afford  so  much  nutriment. 
The  fourth  requisite,  early  growth  and  quick  culture, 
is  a  very  important  one  to  Northern  farmers. 

TO    RENDER   CORN    PROLIFIC. 

It  seems  to  be  a  great  desideratum  with  farmers 
to  plant  that  variety  of  corn  which  will  produce  the 
most  ears  on  a  stock.  This  criterion  of  a  good  va- 
riety is  deceptive,  and  passes  for  more  than  it  is 
worth ;  and,  withal,  leads  to  a  neglect  of  the  main 
point  which  should  engage  the  farmer's  attention. 
It  is  not  the  number  of  ears  on  a  stock,  but  the  number 
of  bushels  on  an  acre,  that  should  be  the  first  aim  of 
the  grower ;  and  this  depends  not  so  much  on  varie- 


INDIAN    CORN.  Ill 

ty  as  upon  richness  of  soil.  Com,  like  cattle,  will 
prjduce  according  to  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
the  food  which  is  consumed  ;  and  if  this  food  be  not 
in  the  soil,  it  matters  little  how  many  ears  grow 
upon  a  stock ;  the  product  will  be  in  the  ratio  of  the 
food  :  if  there  are  many  ears,  they  will  be  compara- 
tively small ;  if  but  few,  comparatively  large,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  richness  of  the  soil.  An  acre  of  good 
pasture  will  carry,  say  five  sheep,  through  the  sea- 
son, and  fit  them  for  the  butcher ;  but  if  the  acre  is 
made  to  carry  ten  sheep,  they  cannot  yiriv^^_^d 
will  not  be  fit  for  the  butcher.  And  again :  lif^^li^ 
acre  of  pasture  is  poor  and  light,  the  five  sheep  put 
upon  it  will  be  stinted  in  food,  and  will  not  thrive. 
The  gain  in  the  sheep  will  be  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  herbage  they  convert  into  mutton  and 
wool.  So  with  corn.  The  roots  of  this  grain,  like 
the  sheep,  range  over  the  whole  pasture  of  a  field, 
gather  the  nutriment  which  it  contains,  and  this  is 
transmuted  into  grain  and  forage  ;  the  aggregate  of 
wliich  is  not  very  dissimilar,  whether  the  ears  be 
three,  two,  or  one  upon  a  stock,  provided  due  re- 
gard is  had  in  planting  to  the  habits  of  the  variety  , 
so  that  the  pasture  be  fed  off  clean  without  being 
overstocked.  We  have  frequently  observed  that 
we  have  more  ears  upon  a  stock  on  the  borders  of 
our  cornfield,  and  where  the  intervals  are  large  be- 
tween the  hills,  or  some  of  the  stalks  deficient,  than 
we  have  in  the  centre  of  the  field,  or  where  the  plant- 
ing is  close ;  and  that  the  size  of  the  ears,  or  the 
aggregate  of  the  product,  is  always  in  proportion  to 
the  richness  of  the  soil  and  the  excellence  of  its 
cultivation.  The  atmosphere  undoubtedly  contrib- 
utes essentially  to  the  food  of  the  corn-crop,  where 
the  surface  of  the  soil  is  kept  clean,  open,  and  per- 
meable to  it.  The  fermentation  of  long  dung  in  the 
soil,  and  the  frequent  use  of  the  cultivator,  tend  to 
keep  it  in  this  favourable  condition.  There  is  no 
danger  of  gorging  or  injuring  the  corn  crop  with 


118  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

long  manure  if  it  be  spread  and  buried  with  the 
plough ;  nor  are  its  fertilizing  properties  so  much 
impaired  in  using  it  for  corn,  potatoes,  and  ruta- 
baga in  this  way,  as  they  are  by  the  system  o[  sttm- 
mcr-yarding  it,  so  generally  adopted  in  some  coun- 
ties west  of  Albany. 

The  remarks  which  we  have  made  upon  Indian 
com,  tending  to  show  that  the  product  depends  es- 
sentially upon  the  quantity  of  food  which  it  finds  in 
the  soU  fyr  its  subsistence,  applies,  with  greater  or 
IjgQcKeTgrfWU'arm-crops.  The  economy  of  man- 
^^Kj^flf  oep^lds  jipon  the  judgment  of  the  farmer 
/  19  adti^jfcllg-  thejfdod,  both  as  regards  quality  and 
•■ .  quantify,  ^o.the  wants  of  the  particular  crop.  But 
let  uS'ncJfbe Vnisapprehended  on  one  point:  unfer- 
mented  dwng  should  not  be  used  for  the  small  grain 
.  ••  or  o,ther  crops, which  ripen  at  midsummer,  until  it 
'^'■*1bas  bceh  first  jjrepared  and  fitted  for  them  by  the 
•  autumil-ripening^Crops,  as  com,  f>otatoes,  mta-baga, 
&c.  ;  These  latter  subsist  principally  upon  the  gase- 
ous and  volatile  portions  of  the  manure,  which  are 
first  disengaged  from  the  mass  in  the  process  of  fer- 
mentation, and  which  are  rather  deleterious  to  the 
former  at  the  season  when  they  are  maturing  their 
seeds. 

Another  criterion  which  some  farmers  consider 
as  essential  to  a  good  variety,  is  smallness  of  cob. 
So  far  as  this  conduces  to  the  early  and  perfect  dry- 
ing of  the  grain,  it  is  entitled  to  weight,  but  no  far- 
ther. The  objection  to  a  large  cob  was  answered 
by  a  gentleman  by  asking  the  objector  whether  it 
required  most  cloth  to  make  him  or  his  son  a  vest, 
pointing  to  a  boy  standing  by  his  side.  The  circum- 
ference of  a  cob  two  inches  in  diameter  will  contain 
double  the  quantity  of  gnrain  that  a  cob  of  one  inch 
in  diameter  will. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  the  habits  of  com  change 
with  change  of  climate ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the 
dwarf  Northern  varieties,  when  taken  to  the  South, 


INDIAN    CORN.  113 

in  a  few  years  become  acclimated,  and  assume  the 
tall  growth  of  the  South.  It  is  hence  advisable,  that, 
where  early  maturity  is  desired,  as  it  seems  to  be  in 
our  latitude,  seed  should  be  occasionally  procured 
from  the  North.  Another  means  of  preserving  the 
early  ripening  properties  is  to  select  for  seed  the 
ears  which  ripen  first.  We  have  faised  the  Button 
corn,  obtained  from  the  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont, 
for  sixteen  years ;  and  yet,  taking  care  to  save  for 
seed  the  earliest  matured  ears,  we  arej)iA*Q«i|jj2le 
that  it  ripens  much,  if  any,  later 
when  we  first  planted  it. 

CULTURE    OF    CO 

In  the  fall  of  1837,  the  grou 
for  my  corn  was  in  timothy  am 
sward,  having  been  stocked  abou' 
ploughed  it  late  in  the  fall.  In 
I  covered  it  over  with  common  co^ 
the  barnyard,  which  was  composed' 
tity  of  straw.  My  stock  is  principalf 
straw  was  thrown  into  the  yard  plentifully  during 
the  winter  for  bedding.  In  drawing  it  out,  a  load 
was  usually  dropped  in  a  place,  so  that,  after  it  was 
spread,  it  completely  covered  the  ground  to  quite  a 
thickness.  About  the  middle  of  May  the  ground 
was  ploughed  very  deep,  and  boys  were  sent  ahead 
of  the  plough,  who  raked  all  the  manure  into  the  pre- 
vious furrow,  so  that  it  was  completely  covered. 
Some  of  my  neighbours  then  said  that  they  would 
rather  have  that  coarse  manure  off  from  the  ground 
than  on  it  for  the  good  of  the  corn-crop,,  and  that  it 
would  do  no  good  till  the  next  crop,  or  until  it  should 
be  decomposed.  I  will  here  remark,  that,  from  rea- 
son and  experience,  I  must  protest  against  leaving 
manure  in  the  yard  over  summer,  or  even  putting  it 
into  heaps  to  decay,  as  some  do,  to  heat  and  drain 
off  its  strength.  On  the  contrary,  in  most  cases  it 
is  nearly  as  cheap  to  haul  it  into  the  field  as  to  heap 


114  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

it  up  in  the  yard.  We  get  the  use  of  it  one  year 
sooner,  and  have  all  the  strength  on  the  land,  where 
it  should  be,  instead  of  behig  washed  into  tlie  streams 
of  water.  1  think,  for  corn  and  potatoes,  that  the 
benefit  the  first  year  will  more  than  pay  the  expense 
of  carting  an  ordinary  distance.  To  return  to  my 
subject :  1  next  hirrowed  and  furrowed  my  ground, 
or,  rather,  marked  it  very  shallow,  three  feet  apart. 
It  was  now  the  17th  of  May,  having  been  hindered  in 
plaalin^l^  Dumber  of  days  by  a  heavy  rain.  The 
kni#  ti^r^  «itteen  to  eighteen  inches  apart,  and  I 
pat  three  kemels'in  a  hill^  It  being  rather  cold  and 
wet,  the  com  did  not  sprout  as  quick  as  usual ;  and, 
on  examination,  I  found  that  a  small  wire-worm,  that 
had  probably  been  in  the  manure,  had  eaten  into  the 
chit  of  much  of  it,  so  that  only  a  part  was  coming 
up.  Although  now  as  late  as  the  4th  of  June,  I 
commenced  planting  over,  by  putting  in  just  as  much 
seed  as  1  did  the  first  time,  in  a  hill  between  every 
two  hills,  which  made  them  nearly  join.  As  I  had 
only  seed  enough  left  of  the  kind  to  plant  over  1 18 
rods  of  the  ground,  the  rest  was  planted  in  beans. 
I  will  here  state,  that  the  118  rods  was  all  the  ground 
that  had  been  manured,  and  a  cast  was  made  on  the 
acre  from  that  ratio.  The  rest  was  equally  as  good 
com,  but  the  ground  was  not  well  stocked.  "When 
I  hoed  the  first  time,  I  concluded,  at  the  second  hoe- 
•  ing,  to  pull  out  some  where  it  was  thickest ;  but  it 
being  left  for  some  time,  and  forgetting  to  tell  my 
man  to  do  it,  it  all  stood.  I  directed  him  to  hoe  it 
twice  more  ;  but  he  did  it  only  once,  having  for  ex- 
cuse that  the  corn  had  got  so  large  he  could  not  do 
it ;  so  that  it  had  only  two  hoeings.  The  stalks  were 
8  or  10  feet  high,  and  a  complete  swamp  to  appear- 
ance. 

Now  some  of  my  neighbours  said  it  would  be  all 
stalks  and  no  corn.  On  the  night  of  the  2d  of  Sep- 
tember, I  think,  we  had  a  severe  frost,  which  killed 
the  stalks ;  but  the  com  was  all  ripe,  the  last  plant- 


INDIAN    CORN.  115 

ed  as  well  as  the  first ;  making  for  the  last  planted 
just  13  weeks.  It  needed  no  sorting  to  grind,  and 
handsomer  corn  I  never  saw.  As  to  its  being  all 
stalks  and  no  com,  the  result  showed.  I  am  strong- 
ly of  the  opinion  that  great  improvements  may  be 
made  in  planting  by  distributing  the  seed  more  over 
the  ground,  and  by  putting  in  more  of  it.       L.  C. 

I  here  offer  my  mode  of  treating  com,  which  1 
consider  the  most  important  among  the  grain  crops. 
Whether  manure  has  been  spread  before  ploughing 
or  placed  in  the  hills  afterward,  I  adopt  the  same 
practice.  As  soon  as  the  com  is  up,  so  that  the 
rows  or  lines  can  be  distinctly  seen,  I  run  the  plough 
through,  as  near  to  the  hills  as  may  be  without  dis- 
placing the  plants,  to  the  depth  of  five  inches,  throw- 
ing the  earth  from  the  hills ;  if  moles  or  mice  are 
plenty  in  the  field,  both  ways ;  if  not,  only  one  way. 
The  rows  are  then  gone  over  with  the  hand-hoe,  the 
hard  surface  or  crust  immediately  about  the  plants 
stirred  and  broken,  and  the  contiguous  weeds  or 
grass  destroyed :  this  is  the  first  dressing.  After 
about  ten  days,  set  in  the  plough  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  before,  if  it  has  been  ploughed  through  only 
one  way ;  if  both,  reverse  the  furrows,  and  let  the 
hoe  be  used  to  loosen  the  earth  about  the  plants, 
and  to  draw  a  little  fresh  soil  to  the  hill,  at  the  same 
time  eradicating  all  weeds  and  grass  near  the  plants. 
Now  we  have  ended  the  second  process,  and  are 
ready,  at  the  proper  time,  for  the  third  and  fourth, 
or  more,  as  the  soil  or  season  may  require,  with  the 
cultivator  or  harrow  to  break  down  small  hillocks 
or  ridges,  and  to  keep  a  soft  surface  between  the 
rows,  that  will  absorb  the  showers  or  dews,  when  a 
hard  surface  would  be  but  little  benefited,  taking 
care  at  each  time  to  draw  a  little  new  mould  to  the 
hills,  yet  leaving  them  at  the  last  dressing  wide  and 
square,  and  but  slightly  elevated.  This  little  rise 
about  the  com  wiU  help  to  support  it  at  the  autum- 


116  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

nal  gale,  and  will  not  turn  the  showers  oflTto  the  in- 
jury of  the  crop.  This  management  may  seem  not 
exactly  orthodox ;  but  I  fancy  I  derive  some  advan- 
tages not  to  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  harrow  or 
even  cultivator  alone.  Those  mischievous  miners, 
the  moles  and  mice,  are  more  effectually  opposed  in 
their  operations,  a  deeper  and  softer  bed  is  prepared 
for  the  roots  to  strike  into,  and  greater  extent  of 
surface  is  exposed  to  be  heated  by  tiio  sun's  rays; 
which  is,  in  effect,  protracting  the  suimner  a  week 
or  ten  days;  time  enough,  not  unfrequently,  to  save 
a  crop.  A  common  sayiijg  with  our  farmers  is,  corn 
only  wants  hot  weather;  and  the  fact  is  notorious, 
that  a  fair  crop  of  corn  may  be  obtained  by  nice 
management  in  a  season  so  dry  that  any  other  grain- 
crop  would  fail  almost  in  toto.  The  harrow  and 
cultivator  scarify  the  ground,  but  do  not  lay  it  open 
with  a  bold  incision,  nor  leave  the  corn-hill  on  a 
prominent  ridge  or  hillock  at  the  commencement  of 
growth,  when  nothing  but  heat  seems  necessary  to 
the  vitality  and  health  of  the  plants.  If  it  be  object- 
ed that  by  this  use  of  the  plough  we  assist  the  escape 
of  vegetable  food  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
and  volatile  alkali,  I  reply,  it  may  be  so  to  the  amount 
of  six  or  eight  per  cent. — an  inconsiderable  matter 
compared  with  the  accelerated  maturity  of  the  crop. 

Arch.  Javne. 

experiments  in  producing  improved  varieties  of 
indian  corn. 
Some  ten  or  twelve  years  since,  I  instituted  a  se- 
ries of  experiments  in  crossing  different  varieties  of 
corn,  and  was  perfectly  successful.  The  variety 
named  in  Dr.  Brown's  Ust  (page  43  of  the  same  num- 
ber), "  No.  16,  Pennsylvania,  8  rows,  called  Smith's 
early  white,"  was  the  result  of  one  of  the  experi- 
ments. It  was  produced  by  what  we  call  the  Ttis- 
carora,  or  "  New- York  cheat,"  with  the  Sioux  (No. 
9  of  Dr.  Brown's  list).     From  the  parentage  of  thia 


INDIAN    CORN.  117 

new  variety,  you  would  naturally  expect  a  mulatto 
colour ;  but  I  will  explain  why  it  is  pure  white  as  1 
go  along.  I  had  two  objects  in  view,  the  one  to  get 
the  large,  white  grains  of  the  Tuscarora  on  the  small 
cob  of  the  Sioux ;  and  the  other,  to  produce  a  variety 
earlier  than  either,  if  possible.  To  accomplish  my 
object,  I  planted  a  piece  of  ground,  say  the  eighth  of 
an  acre,  with  both  varieties,  one  in  each  alternate 
hill ;  but  as  the  Tuscarora  was  known  to  me  to  be 
from  15  to  20  days  later  than  the  Sioux,  I  planted 
the  latter  15  days  after  the  former.  Now  the  pro- 
cess of  crossing  is  performed  in  ihe  following  man- 
ner. The  variety  that  has  the  cob  that  I  wish  to 
retain  is  used  as  the  female,  and  as  the  tassels  (male 
flowers)  appear,  they  are  carefully  cut  off  and  sup- 
pressed ;  the  variety  whose  grain  I  wish  to  get  is 
used  as  the  male,  and  its  tassels  are  allowed  to  grow. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  interfere  with  the  female  flow- 
ers (the  silk).  The  ears  of  corn  produced  by  the 
Sioux  hills  had  the  form  and  size  of  cob  of  the  Si- 
oux, but  the  grain  was  a  beautiful  sulphur  colour, 
and  of  the  form  of  the  Tuscarora,  though  smaller. 
This  corn  I  planted  the  next  year,  and  the  result 
was  a  beautiful  variegation  of  the  grains,  of  pure 
yellow  and  pure  white,  though  all  the  grains  were 
alike  as  to  size  and  shape.  The  cream-colour  had 
evidently  returned  to  its  original  elements.  I  then 
carefully  selected  the  white  grains,  and  planted  them 
the  third  year,  and  the  result  was  the  establishment 
of  the  variety  called  "  Smith's  early  white."  (I  do 
not  understand  how  or  whence  Dr.  Brown  obtained 
the  name  of  Pennsylvania,  8  rows.) 

My  experiments  established  the  fact  satisfactorily 
to  my  mind,  that  you  can  place  the  grains  of  any 
variety  of  corn  upon  the  cob  of  any  other  variety,  by 
the  process  detailed  above ;  and  that  there  is  no  ob- 
ject more  worthy  the  attention  of  farmers  than  im- 
provements of  this  kind.  You  have  only  to  regulate 
the  time  of  planting  each  variety,  so  that  they  flower 


118  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

at  the  same  time.  I  ought  to  observe,  that  if  you 
do  not  destroy  the  tassels  of  the  variety  that  has  the 
objectionable  grain,  the  crossing  will  not  be  so  per- 
fect, because  the  impregnation  will  be  from  two 
males  instead  of  one,  and,  conse  juently,  the  grains 
produced  will  be  various.  The  crossing  is  equally 
t>nportant  in  making  the  large  late  kinds  small  and 
early.  You  can  get  the  tall  Virginia  corn  (that  is, 
the  grain  of  it)  upon  the  early  dwarf  stalks.  Indeed, 
you  may  vary  it  almost  at  pleasure.  As  you  will 
perceive  above,  it  requires  three  years  to  accomplish 
the  object  perfectly.  The  first  year  effects  the 
crossing ;  the  second  year  certain  characteristics  re- 
turn to  their  original  elements,  such  as  the  colour, 
and  somewhat  of  the  flinty  quality ;  the  third  year 
the  new  variety  is  produced  perfect — and  will  re- 
main so,  so  long  as  it  shall  be  kept  distinct  from 
other  varieties. 

Another  experiment  was  combined  by  me  with 
the  above,  viz. :  the  first  matured  ears  of  good  form 
and  size  were  always  selected  for  seed.  By  this 
process  I  was  able,  in  five  years,  to  make  my  new 
variety  from  15  to  20  days  eariier  than  the  Sioux,  or 
any  other  variety.  I  had  green  com  on  my  table 
for.  some  years,  two  weeks  earher  than  the  hotels 
which  were  supplied  with  early  com  from  Norfolk. 
I  beg  to  observe,  that  the  Smith's  early  white  has 
but  eight  rows,  and  the  Sioux  (the  female  parent) 
twelve :  now  to  account  for  this.  After  I  had  pro- 
duced the  variety,  I  was  still  desirous  of  putting  it 
upon  a  smaller  cob;  hence  I  planted  it  with  the  su- 
gar-corn, using  the  latter  as  the  female.  The  result 
was  the  eight  rows.  I  also  once  took  a  notion  to 
give  it  a  red  cob,  and  had  no  difliculty  in  doing  so, 
by  using  the  red  cob  sugar-corn  as  the  female  ;  but 
I  recrossed  and  got  rid  of  the  red  cob  again,  because 
it  stained  the  lips  and  fingers  while  eating  it. 

Gideon  B.  Smith 


INDIAN    CORN.  119 

KXPERIMENTS   IN    HARVESTING   CORN. 

Andrew  Nicol  has  given  in  the  Farmers'  Register 
a  statement  of  some  experiments  he  made  last  year 
with  his  corn  crop,  the  substance  of  which  we  ab- 
stract. 

1.  He  spread  32  loads  of  pine  leaves  on  a  piece  of 
corn  land,  planted  very  close  for  the  chmate  of  Vir- 
ginia, so  as  to  give  an  average  thickness  of  four 
inches.-  The  crop  received  no  after  culture.  The 
product  was  75  bushels  per  acre,  considered  there  a 
very  large  return.  The  pine  leaves  counteracted 
the  effect  of  drought ;  and  Mr.  N.  thinks  that,  had  the 
covering  been  thicker,  the  product  would  have  been 
greater. 

2.  The  second  experiment  was  made  to  ascertain 
the  effect  of  topping,  cutting  up,  and  leaving  the  grain 
to  ripen  upon  the  standing  stalk.  Eighteen  rows  of 
150  yards  in  length  were  stripped  of  the  fodder;  that 
is,  all  the  leaves,  except  two  above  the  ears,  were 
taken  off  on  the  11th  September;  the  tops  were  cut 
from  six  of  these  rows  on  the  20th  September ;  six 
other  rows  of  the  18  were  cut  by  the  ground  the 
same  day  ;  and  the  third  six  rows  were  left  to  stand, 
.ogether  with  the  first  six,  until  the  corn  ripened ; 
other  six  rows,  from  which  neither  fodder  was 
pulled  nor  tops  cut,  were,  on  the  same  20th  Septem- 
ber, cut  off  by  the  ground  and  set  up  in  small  shocks. 
"  The  corn  from  each  was  gathered  on  the  2d  De- 
cember, and  on  the  7th  February  shelled  and  accu- 
rately weighed.  The  following  are  the  results  iii 
measure  and  in  weight : 

1st  C  rows  measured  8  bushels,  weight  per  bushel  58  lbs. 
2d  6    "  "  7i      "  "  57    " 

3d  6    "  "  7|      "  "  66f  " 

4th  6    "  "  Si      "  "  59 J  •« 

These  results  go  to  show, 

1.  That  leaves  are  essential,  even  after  com  is  cut 
off  at  the  ground,  in  increasing  the  quantity  and 
weight  of  the  crop.    And, 


ISO  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

2.  That  the  mode  of  cutting  up  the  whole,  grain, 
tops,  and  leaves,  gives  the  most  corn  and  heaviest 
com,  and  certainly  improves  t'lo  quality  and  in- 
creases the  quantity  of  cattle  fodder.  The  differ- 
ence between  No.  2  and  No.  4  will  be  seen  to  be 
nearly  ten  per  cent,  in  quantity,  and  in  weight  about 
five  per  cent. 

The  third  experiment  was  in  removing  the  suck- 
ers from  corn.  Mr.  N.  considered  the  result  deci 
dedly  in  favour  of  the  practice.  Where  the  corn  waa 
uot  thus  treated,  the  ears  were  diminutive,  while  the 
suckers  produced  little  or  no  sound  grain.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  suckers  abstract  food  from  the  plants, 
and,  if  taken  off  (we  should  prefer  to  cut  them  off) 
and  well  cured,  they  furnish  excellent  forage ;  yet 
we  have  hitherto  doubted  if  the  gain  would  repay 
the  labour ;  still  we  may  be  wrong. 

SELECTION    OF   SEED   AND    EARLY    MATURrTT. 

We  adopt  the  opinion  of  Joseph  Cooper,  so  far  a« 
least  as  relates  to  maize,  that  a  change  of  seed  is  not 
necessary  when  due  regard  is  paid  to  its  selection.  We 
have  cultivated  the  Dutton  variety  of  com  for  eigh- 
teen years,  always  personally  selecting  the  earliest 
and  fairest  ears  for  seed,  which  were  immediately 
braided  and  hung  in  an  airy  loft.  It  has  rip)ened  as 
early  this  as  it  did  the  first  year  we  received  the 
seed  from  the  far  North,  while  we  are  satisfied  it 
has  increased  in  productiveness ;  that  it  has  largei 
ears,  and  more  of  them,  and  taller  stalks.  The  seed 
is  left  to  mature  on  the  stalk  till  the  crop  is  gathered 
from  the  field,  the  earliest  ripened  being  then  easily 
determined  by  the  appearance  of  the  husk  and  the 
rich  colour  of  the  corn.  Hence  the  importance  of 
every  farmer  taking  care  to  secure,  m  person,  his 
best  seed. 

There  is  one  other  fact  that  should  not  be  lost 
sight  of — the  influence  of  soil  and  location  upon  ve« 
getable  growth.    A  moist,  rich  soil  will  give  the 


INDIAN    CORN.  121 

largest  growth,  both  of  foliage  and  fruit,  and  a  light 
and  drj'  one  the  earliest  maturity,  and  the  richest  or 
most  concentrated  product.  Professor  Ives  states, 
that  plants  from  the  seed  of  the  morus  multicaulis 
have  the  foliage  of  the  parent  in  a  rich  humid  soil, 
while  they  resemble  those  of  the  morus  alba  on  a 
thin,  light  soil ;  and  it  is  believed  that  a  pound  of 
the  leaves  of  the  latter  are  intrinsically  more  valua- 
ble to  the  silkworm  than  a  pound  of  the  former.  It 
is  not  great  size  that  indicates  superiority  either 
in  animals  or  vegetables.  A  very  large  apple  is 
seldom  a  very  good  one.  The  cider  from  a  hilly, 
dry,  calcareous  soil,  is  always  superior  to  that  from 
a  low  and  rich  one.  A  very  large  beet  contains 
much  less  sugar  than  the  same  weight  of  small 
beets.  Indian  corn,  grown  upon  a  light,  dry  soil, 
comes  to  earlier  maturity,  but  is  inferior  in  its 
growth  and  in  the  size  of  its  ears  to  that  which  is 
grown  upon  a  highly  manured  loam.  Indeed,  the 
difference  is  so  great  on  our  own  grounds  this  sea- 
son, that  the  growth  and  product  in  two  locations 
would  hardly  be  taken  for  the  same  variety. 

We  have  another  suggestion  to  make  in  regard  to 
the  influence  of  steeps.  A  communication  from 
Senator  Johnson,  inserted  in  the  first  volume  of  the 
transactions  of  the  old  agricultural  society,  shows 
that  the  crop  from  seed-wheat,  steeped  in  a  solution 
of  saltpetre,  ripened  two  weeks  earlier,  and  gave 
25  per  cent,  more  product  than  the  crop  from  seed 
not  thus  steeped.  We  began  to  plant  our  main  crop 
of  corn  on  the  12th  of  May,  and  finished  on  the  I6th. 
All  the  seed  was  steeped  12  hours  in  a  solution  of 
nitre,  in  quantities  sufficient  for  one  day's  planting, 
A  few  quarts  of  seed  which  remained  were  set  in 
the  cellar,  where  it  remained,  partially  covered  with 
pickle,  till  the  19th,  when  it  was  planted  in  a  vacant 
patch  of  thin  soil,  in  which  we  also  planted,  the  same 
day,  six  other  varieties,  all  reputed  to  be  remarkably 
early,  and  the  seed  of  all  which  had  been  soaked  in 

I— K 


122  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

saltpetre  water.  The  last  planted  Dutton  com  was 
decided!}'  the  earliest  of  the  seven  sorts  in  coining 
to  maturity,  and  was  at  least  two  weeks  earlier  than 
the  main  crop,  planted  from  three  to  six  days  sooner. 
Its  maturity  may  have  been  in  some  measure  accel- 
erated by  the  porosity  of  the  soil,  compared  with 
that  of  the  main  field,  which  was  highly  manured 
with  unfermented  dung ;  yet  we  think  it  not  improb- 
able that  it  was  principally  owing  to  the  seed  having 
remained  saturated  for  96  hours  in  the  nitrous  solu- 
tion. 

Having  referred  to  our  specimen  plat,  we  will  add, 
that  it  consisted  of  the  following  varieties  of  com : 

1.  Dutton;  2  and  3.  Lake  Superior  and  Squaw 
from  Lake  Michigan ;  4.  Early  white,  not  recollect- 
ed where  from  ;  5.  Early  Canada,  from  Poughkeep- 
sie;  6.  Red  Blaze,  from  Elmira;  7.  Early  yellow, 
from  Vermont.  These  varieties  were  all  planted 
the  same  day,  two  rows  of  each,  with  intervals  be- 
tween the  different  kinds  of  20  or  30  feet.  On  ex- 
amining them  to-day,  August  28,  we  find  No.  1 
mostly  ripe,  the  husks  dr>'  and  separating  from  the 
grain ;  No.  2,  Lake  Superior,  an  eight- rowed  yellow, 
growing  4  1-2  feet  high,  but  very  prolific  in  suckers 
and  ears,  next  to  the  Dutton  in  maturity.  The  early 
white  is  an  eight-rowed  com,  5  1-2  feet  high,  and  is 
third  in  ripeness.  The  Vermont  is  a  yellow,  eight- 
rowed  corn,  grows  six  feet  high,  and  is  next  in  ripe- 
ness to  the  early  white.  The  Squaw,  No.  3,  is  an 
eight-rowed  coloured  grain,  grows  six  feet  high,  and 
is  fifth  in  forwardness.  The  Red  Blaze  comes  next, 
and  the  Early  Canada  is  the  latest.  Both  are  eight- 
rowed,  and,  like  the  Dutton,  they  grow  seven  and 
eight  feet  high.  As  to  number  of  ears  on  a  stock, 
they  are  about  alike,  except  the  Lake  Superior,  which 
is  far  the  most  prolific  in  suckers  and  ears,  though 
they  are  very  small.  As  to  size  of  ears,  the  Dutton 
has  a  manifest  superiority ;  but  in  length,  those  of 
the  early  Canada  and  the  Red  Blaze  eight-rowed 


MANURES.  123 

are  equal,  if  not  a  little  superior,  to  the  Dutton.  Sev- 
eral gentlemen  who  have  visited  the  plat  concur  in 
the  correctness  of  this  statement. 


CHAPTER  V. 


What  quantity  should  be  applied  to  an  acre. — Winter  Man- 
agement of  Manure. — Specific  Manures. — Bone  Manure. — 
Leached  Ashes. — Peat  Earth,  Peat  Ashes,  &c. 

[The  subject  of  manures  is  one  of  great  impor- 
tance to  the  farmer,  and  under  this  head  we  have 
arranged  several  papers  from  the  pen  of  Judge  Buel, 
illustrating  the  particular  topics  indicated.  That 
there  is  a  most  lamentable  deficiency  in  our  general 
management  and  use  of  manures,  cannot  be.  ques- 
tioned ;  and  to  introduce  a  more  correct  and  farmer^ 
like  course  was  a  favourite  object  with  that  suc- 
cessful cultivator.  In  addition  to  the  remarks  of 
Judge  Bucl,  we  have  selected  two  papers  of  peculiai 
interest  as  part  of  this  chapter ;  one  being  part  of  a 
communication  from  Mr.  Anthony,  of  Rhode  Island, 
illustrating  the  value  of  leached  ashes  as  a  manure ; 
and  the  other  a  letter  from  the  well-known  farmer, 
W.  A.  Seely,  of  Staten  Island,  on  the  use  of  peat- 
earth  and  peat-ashes  as  fertilizers  of  the  soil.  This 
letter  is  particularly  important  to  farmers  at  the  pres- 
ent time,  as,  in  consequence  of  the  geological  sur- 
vey of  the  state  now  going  on,  the  presence  of  large 


124  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

bodies  of  peat  have  been  made  known  where  its  ex> 
istence  was  scarcely  suspected,  and  thus  an  easy 
and  certain  mode  o'f  fertilizing  lands  made  poor  by 
injurious  cultivation,  has  been  placed  within  the 
reach  of  thousands,  n  will  be  read  with  interest  by 
all  who  possess,  or  can  obtain,  this  invaluable  sub- 
stance.] 

WHAT  QUANTITY  OF   MANURE    SHOULD    BE  APPLIED  TO 
THE  ACRE? 

The  answer  to  this  question  involves  many  con- 
siderations which  preclude  a  definite  reply ;  such  as 
the  condition  of  the  land,  the  quality  of  the  manure, 
and  the  kind  of  crop.  Too  much,  as  well  as  too  Ut- 
tle  manure,  may  be  applied.  What  would  be  bene- 
ficial for  an  autumn-ripening  or  hoed  crop,  would  be 
prejudicial  to  a  small  grain  or  snmmer-ripening  crop 
(more  particularly  if  the  manure  is  applied  in  an  un- 
fermented  state),  and  there  would  be,  withal,  a  waste 
of  fertilizing  matter.  Twenty  tons  to  the  acre 
would  not  be  too  much  for  corn,  potatoes,  ruta-baga, 
&c.,  if  applied  broadcast  and  ploughed  in;  but  if  it 
be  long  manure,  and  applied  in  the  drill  or  hill,  and 
a  dry  season  should  ensue,  it  might  prove  an  injury ; 
and  were  this  quantity  per  acre  of  long,  or  even 
short  manure,  applied  to  small  spring  grain,  it  would 

Erobably  cause  a  flush  of  straw,  likely  to  be  affected 
y  rust,  at  the  expense  of  the  more  valuable  part, 
the  grain.  Dr.  Coventry,  late  professor  of  agricul- 
ture in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  whose  business 
and  study  it  was  to  collect  data,  and  make  coirect 
deductions  in  this  and  other  agricultural  matters, 
was  of  the  opinion  that  from  four  to  five  tons  of  the 
kind  usually  denominated  spit  or  tolerably  rotted 
dung,  are  yearly  requisite  to  keep  up  the  fertility  of 
the  soil;  and  this  supply  he  thinks.a  well-managed 
farm  may  be  made  to  produce.    To  show  how  tUs 


MANURES.  125 

quantity  may  be  obtained,  and  how  it  should  be  ap- 
plied, we  quote  from  Mr.  Youatt,  the  author  of 
"  British  Husbandry." 

"  According  to  that  calculation,"  says  our  author, 
"  it  must  be  observed,  that  the  course  of  crops  is 
supposed  to  consist — on  light  soils,  of  the  alternate 
plan  of  corn  and  green  crops  [see  New  System  of 
Husbandry] — on  clays,  which  do  not  admit  of  that 
system,  that  the  holding  contain  a  proportionate 
quantity  of  grass-land,  and  that  the  quantity  of 
manure  should  be  supplied,  not  in  small  quantities 
annually,  but  in  large  ones,  at  intermediate  dis- 
tances of  four,  five,  and  six  years.  Light  soils,  in 
the  common  course  of  husbandry,  rarely  require  the 
application  of  putrescent  manure  oftener  than'once 
in  four  years,  and  in  all  cases  where  the  clover  is 
allowed  to  stand  two  seasons,  it  may  be  deferred 
without  disadvantage  for  another  year.  Heavy  soils 
may  run  six  years  without  it,  provided  that  the  land 
be  laid  one  year  in  fallow,  and  that  there  be  suffi- 
cient meadow  to  be  reckoned  at  least  one  crop  in 
the  course.  It  being,  however,  clearly  understood, 
that,  whether  on  light  or  heavy  land,  nothing  but 
grain,  seeds,  and  livestock  is  to  be  sold  off  the  farm, 
unless  replaced  with  an  equal  portion  of  purchased 
dung ;  that  the  whole  of  the  green  crops,  the  haulm 
of  pulse,  and  the  straw  of  corn,  is  to  be  used  in  the 
most  economical  manner ;  and  that  some  of  the  live- 
stock are  to  be  either  soiled  or  fattened  upon  oil- 
cake :  this  plan,  if  carefully  pursued  on  good  soils, 
with  capital  sufficient  to  secure  an  abundant  work- 
ing and  fattening  stock  of  cattle,  ought,  under  fair 
management,  to  furnish  an  adequate  supply  of  dung 
for  any  of  the  usual  courses  of  culture. 

"  Having  thus  submitted  to  our  readers  all  that  oc- 
curs to  us  of  importance  on  the  subject  of  famyard 
manure,  we  shall  here  recapitulate  a  summary  of 
the  chief  points  which  we  deem  particularly  worthy 
of  their  consideration : 


129  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

1.  To  bottom  the  farmyard  with  furze,  fern 
[brake],  dry  haulm  [stubble,  &c.],  or  any  other  loose 
refuse  that  takes  the  longest  time  to  dissolve ;  aiid 
over  that  to  bed  it  deep  with  straw. 

2.  To  occasionally  remove  the  cribs  of  store-cat- 
tlo  to  diflTerent  parts  of  the  straw-yard,  in  order  that 
their  dung  may  be  dropped  and  their  litter  trodden 
equally, 

3.  To  spread  the  dung  of  other  animals,  when 
thrown  into  the  yards,  in  equal  layers  over  every 
part. 

4.  To  remove  the  dung  from  the  yard  at  least 
once,  or  oftener,  during  the  winter,  to  the  mixen.* 

5.  To  turn  and  mix  all  dunghills  until  the  woody 
or  fibrous  texture  of  the  matter  contained  in  them, 
and  the  roots  and  seeds  of  weeds,  be  completely  de- 
composed, and  until  they  emit  a  foul,  putrid  smell ; 
by  which  time  they  reach  their  greatest  degree  of 
strength,  and  arrive  at  the  state  of  spit-dung. 

6.  To  keep  the  dung  in  an  equal  state  of  moisture, 
so  as  to  prevent  any  portion  of  the  heap  from  be- 
coming fire-fanged.  If  the  fermentation  be  too  rapid, 
heavy  watering  will  abate  the  heat ;  but  it  will  after- 
ward revive  with  increased  force,  unless  the  heap  be 
either  trodden  firmly  down  or  covered  with  mould 
to  exclude  the  air. 

7.  To  ferment  the  dung,  if  to  be  laid  upon  arable 
land  during  the  autumn,  in  a  much  less  degree  than 
that  to  be  applied  before  a  spring  sowing. 

8.  To  lay  a  larger  quantity  on  cold  and  wet  lands 
than  on  those  of  a  lighter  nature  ;  because  the  for- 
mer require  to  be  corrected  by  the  warmth  of  the 
dung,  while  on  dry,  sandy,  and  gravelly  soils,  the 
application  of  too  much  dung  is  apt  to  burn  up  the 
plants.  Stiff  land  will  also  be  loosened  by  the  unde- 
cayed  fibres  of  long  dung,  which,  although  its  putre- 

*  The  plaro  of  deposite  where  the  manure  is  heaped  up  and 
tnixtd. 


MANURES.  127 

taction  will  thus  be  retarded,  and  its  fertilizing  power 
delayed,  will  yet  ultimately  afford  nourishment. 

9.  To  form  composts  with  dung,  or  other  animal 
and  vegetable  substances,  and  earth,  for  application 
to  light  soils. 

10.  To  spread  the  manure,  when  carried  to  the 
field,  with  the  least  possible  delay  ;  and,  if  laid  upon 
arable  land,  to  turn  it  immediately  into  the  soil. 

11.  To  preserve  the  drainage  from  stables  and 
dunghills  in  every  possible  way ;  and,  if  not  applied 
in  a  liquid  state,  to  throw  it  again  upon  the  mixen. 

12.  To  try  experiments,  during  a  series  of  years, 
upon  the  same  soils  and  crops,  with  equal  quantities 
of  dung,  laid  on  fresh  and  afterward  rotted,  in  order 
to  ascertain  the  results  of  their  application  to  the 
land.  The  whole  quantity  to  be  first  weighed  or 
measured,  and  then  divided. 

"  Tho  fermentation  of  farmyard  manure  is,  in  fact, 
a  subject  of  far  greater  importance' than  is  generally 
imagined ;  for  on  a  due  estimation  of  its  value  mainly 
depends  the  individual  success,  as  well  as  the  na- 
tional prosperity  of  our  agriculture.  The  experi- 
ments to  which  we  point  cannot,  therefore,  fail  to 
come  home  to  the  interests  of  every  man  ;  they  may 
be  made  without  expense,  and  without  any  other 
trouble  than  the  mere  exercise  of  common  observa- 
tion and  intelligence.  Leaving,  however,  aside  the 
discussion  concerning  the  disputed  worth  of  fresh  or 
fermented,  of  long  or  short  dung,  let  the  farmer 
sedulously  bend  his  attention  to  the  accumulation  of 
the  utmost  quantity  that  it  may  be  in  his  power  to 
procure  The  manner  and  the  time  of  using  it,  in 
either  state,  must,  however,  be  governed  by  circum- 
stances which  may  not  always  be  within  his  control; 
and  every  judicious  husbandman  will  rather  accom- 
modate himself  to  the  exigency  of  the  case,  than  ad- 
nere  strictly  to  his  own  notions  of  what  he  conceives 
to  be  the  best  practice.  In  fine,  wliether  favouring 
the  one  or  the  other  side  of  the  question,  let  him  col- 


188  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

lect  all  he  can ;  apply  it  carefully  to  his  crops ;  and 
then,  trusting  to  events,  •  let  the  land  at\d  the  muck 
settle  it.' " 

ON  THE  WINTER    MANAGEMENT  OF    MANURE. 

We  make  this  preliminary  remark,  upon  which 
what  we  have  to  offer  is  in  a  measure  predicated,  viz., 
that  all  the  manure  from  the  stables,  yard,  and  hog- 
pen should  be  carried  out  in  the  spring  for  the  corn 
and  potato  crops.     . 

The  objects  to  be  obtained  in  the  winter  manage- 
ment  of  manure  are, 

1.  To  prevent  waste  by  leaching  and  drainage ; 

2.  To  prevent  its  becoming  fire-fanged  ;  and, 

3.  To  prevent  more  than  moderate  or  incipient 
fermentation. 

1.  Where  cattle-yards  are  upon  a  slope,  or  are  con- 
vex, or  nearly  upon  a  level  surface,  the  hquid  portions 
of  the  manure,  which  may  be  termed,  in  a  measure, 
the  cooked  food  of  plants,  continually  pass  off  and 
are  lost.  Heavy  rains,  and  the  drip  from  the  barns 
and  sheds,  also  passing  through  the  manurn  in  their 
escape  from  the  yard,  leach  and  deprive  it  of  its  finest 
and  most  fertilizing  properties. 

The  remedies  against  this  evil  consist,  first,  in  giv- 
ing a  concave  or  dish  shape  to  the  yard.  The  earth 
excavated  from  the  centre  being  deposited  upon  the 
borders,  which  should  be  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  broad, 
with  a  slight  inclination  to  the  centre,  a  dry  passage 
to  the  barn  is  secured,  and  a  sufficient  space  of  dry 
ground  to  feed  the  stock  upon  which  run  at  large. 
Secondly,  the  yard  should  be  bedded,  after  it  is  clean- 
ed, with  peat  or  swarpp  earth,  if  the  farm  affords  it, 
six  to  twelve  inches  deep ;  or,  if  this  is  not  to  be  had, 
with  any  other  porous  waste  earth  ;  and  afterward 
should  be  kept  well  littered  with  straw,  stalks,  po- 
tato-tops, ana  the  coarse  grass  and  weeds  of  the 
farm.  This  shape  of  the  yard  prevents  the  escape 
of  the  liquids,  and  the  earth  and  litter  absorb  and  be- 


MANURES.  129 

come  enriched  by  them.  Even  should  the  liquids  of 
ihe  yard  be  dried  up,  as  they  are  in  summer,  the 
earth  and  litter  will  retain  the  fertilizing  matters 
which  thoy  held  in  solution.  By  these  operations 
alone  the  quantity  of  manure  will  be  double  what  it 
is  where  they  are  neglected.  Thirdly,  to  prevent  an 
exess  of  water  in  the  yard,  what  falls  from  the  build- 
ings should  be  conducted  off  by  gutters.  And,  fourth- 
ly, a  reservoir  should  be  constructed  under  ground 
for  the  reception  of  the  liquids  that  unavoidably  flow 
from  the  yard,  and  particularly  for  the  urine  from 
the  stables.  By  this  latter  means  a  great  accession 
may  be  made  to  the  fertilizing  resources  of  a  farm, 
and  a  material  obtained  fitted  for  the  immediate 
wants  of  a  growing  crop. 

2.  When  dung  is  accumulated  in  large  masses,  ei- 
ther when' thrown  from  the  stables  or  in  the  fields 
where  it  is  to  be  applied,  even  though  it  be  protected 
from  the  weather,  a  violent  fermentation  takes  place, 
moisture  is  exhausted  from  the  mass,  and  it  becomes 
what  is  termed  fire-fanged — dry,  light,  and  mouldy, 
and  seriously  impaired  in  its  value. 

To  avoid  this  in  the  yard,  spread  the  manure  oc- 
casionally over  its  surface.  It  thereby  becomes 
blended  with  other  matters  less  disposed  to  ferment, 
is  trodden  by  the  stock,  and  the  air,  one  of  the  agents 
in  causing  it  to  ferment,  is  in  a  measure  excluded. 
Under  cover,  it  should  not  be  suffered  to  accumulate 
in  excess  without  the  admixture  of  earthy  matters, 
which  will  retard  fermentation  and  preserve  moist- 
ure. It  is  often  convenient  to  draw  manure  to  the 
field  in  the  autumn  oj"  winter,  where  it  is  to  be  used. 
If  such  manure  has  not  undergone  fermentation,  it 
should  never  be  laltl  in  heaps  of  more  than  three  feet 
in  depth,  or  more  than  six  or  eight  loads  together; 
the  surface  should  be  handsomely  smoothed  off,  and 
then  covered,  when  the  frost  will  permit,  with  six 
or  eight  inches  of  sod  or  earth.  This  prevents  vio- 
lent fermentation,  and  the  loss  of  the  gaseous  mat- 
ters which  fermentation  always  sends  off. 
I.— L 


190  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

With  the  foregoing  precautions,  there  is  little  dan- 
ger of  fermentation  proceeding  to  a  wasteful  or  im- 
proper length  before  the  manure  is  wanted  for  the 
corn  or  potato  crop. 

What  farmer  is  there,  who  makes  any  pretensions 
to  economy,  who  would  not  feel  insulted  to  be  told 
that  he  carelessly  wasted  one  half  of  his  family 
food  or  of  his  cattle  food — one  half  of  what  his  farm 
produced  for  animal  subsistence  1  And  where  is  the 
difference,  whether  he  wastes  the  food  of  his  family, 
his  animals,  or  his  crops  ?  His  crops  feed  both  his 
family  and  his  livestock ;  and,  unless  he  feeds  his 
crops,  the  others  must  ultimately  suffer  the  penal- 
ty ;  for  the  earth,  though  a  kind  and  prolific  motlier, 
cannot  always  give  when  we  withhold  from  her  the 
means  of  giving.  Return  to  her  what  ts  no  longer  of 
use  to  us,  and  she  will  requite  us  with  her  richest 
blessings.  Let  us  bear  in  mind,  that  every  animal 
and  vegetable  substance  which  we  give  back  to  her 
bosom,  she  will  faithfully  elaborate  into  new  organ- 
ized matter  for  our  pleasure  and  profit ;  but  that  if, 
like  the  prodigal,  we  exhaust  the  parental  treasure, 
it  can  no  longer  supply  us  with  bread  or  meat.  Too 
many  who  occupy  a  rich  virgin  soil,  may  be  com- 
pared to  useless  drones  who  waste  their  patrimonial 
wealth :  tliey  waste  that  which  would  benefit  both 
themselves  and  their  children. 

SPECIFIC    MANURES. 

We  have  repeatedly  said  that  wheat  cannot  be 
depended  on  as  a  profitable  <!rop  on  primitive  soils 
without  the  application  of  animal  matters  and  lime. 
The  hopes  of  making  New-England  a  wheat-grow- 
ing country  always  seem  to  us  Whtcious,  from  the 
absence,  in  all  primitive  formations,  of  these  two 
essential  elements,  lime  and  animal  matter.  Lime 
is  now  generally  admitted  to  be  essential  to  a  wheat 
soil ;  but  as  hme  consists  of  20  parts  of  the  metal 
ecieium,  and  about  7.5  of  oxygen,  it  does  not  seem 


MANURES.  131 

to  furnish  nitrogen.  Upon  this  subject  we  quote 
from  the  Edinburgh  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture 
the  following,  in  support  of  our  own  opinions. 

"  On  analzying  the  grain  of  wheat  and  the  hulb  of 
the  turnip  (the  parts  for  which  the  crops  are  culti- 
vated), it  is  at  once  found  that  both  of  them  contain 
elementary  principles  not  entering  into  tlie  composi- 
tion of '  common  vegetable  matter,''  namely,  nitrogen  in 
the  grain  of  the  wheat,  and  sulphur  in  the  turnip ; 
besides  which,  the  saline  matter  is  also  found  to  be 
peculiar ;  but  this  last  will  be  considered  more  fully 
hereafter.  Having  once,  therefore,  discovered  that 
these  elements  are  essentially  necessary  to  the 
growth  of  the  above-mentioned  plants,  we  are  evi- 
dently led  to  ask  ourselves  the  question,  Whence 
are  they  to  be  obtained  ?  Dear-bought  experience 
has  long  since  answered,  in  animal  manures.  Yes, 
all  substances  derived  from  the  animal  kingdom 
contain  more  or  less  of  both  nitrogen  and  sulphur, 
and  hence  the  value,  or,  in  fact,  the  absolute  neces- 
sity, of  such  manures  for  the  particular  crops  now 
under  consideration.  It  may,  indeed,  be  said  by 
some,  that, '  however  necessary  animal  manure  may 
be  for  turnips,  still  there  can  be  no  absolute  neces- 
sity for  its  application  to  the  wheat-crop  ;  for,  as  ni- 
trogen is  the  substance  here  wanted,  surely  the  at- 
mosphere will  present  a  ready  and  never-failing  res- 
ervoir of  that  element.'  But  it  must  here  be  re- 
marked, in  answer  to  such  a  statement,  that  it  is 
exceedingly  probable  that  the  higher  order  of  plants, 
at  least,  never  obtain  the  nitrogen  they  possess  from 
the  air,  but  always  from  decomposing  animal  matter." 

And  what,  it  may  be  asked,  are  animal  manures  ? 
Not,  we  answer,  mere  vegetables,  which  have  rot- 
ted in  the  yard  or  passed  through  the  cattle  of  the 
farm — not  farmyard  and  stable  dung,  in  the  ordina- 
ry mode  of  its  management.  The  common" vegeta- 
ble matters  consumed  by  the  farm-stock  do  not  con- 
tain nitrogen,  this  essential  element  of  wheat.     It, 


132  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

however,  abounds  in  the  urine  of  animals  and  in  all 
animal  substances,  as  wool,  hair,  bone,  horn,  the 
dung  of  carnivorous  animals,  or  such  as  feed  upon 
flesh;  it  exists  in  fish,  in  soap-boilers'  waste,  im- 
pregnated with  animal  oil,  and,  to  some  extent,  in 
shell-marls. 

We  shall  be  told,  probably,  in  contradiction  to  our 
theory,  that  the  primitive  formation  of  New-Eng- 
land has  produced  good  wheat,  and  that  it  promises 
to  produce  it  again.  When  first  subjected  to  cul- 
ture, even  soils  of  primitive  formation  have  a  quan- 
tity of  animal  matters  upon  their  surface,  which 
have  been  accumulating  for  centuries,  and  which 
may  suffice  for  one  or  more  crops  of  wheat ;  but 
these  being  exhausted,  the  crop  necessarily  fails. 
Art  may  ui  many  cases  supply  the  deficiency,  by 
the  application  to  the  soil  of  one  or  more  of  the 
above-enumerated  animal  substances ;  and  these  el- 
ementary matters  may  have  been  accumulating  from 
ordinary  manuring,  until  the  soil  has  become  suffi- 
ciently charged  with  the  specific  food  of  a  wheat- 
crop.  We  fear,  however,  that  all  attempts  to  raise 
good  wheat — we  mean  the  grain,  not  the  straw — on 
soils  of  primitive  formation,  without  the  aid  of  ani- 
mal manures,  will  be  found  to  be  rather  an  uphill 
business ;  and  that,  even  with  this  aid,  like  Frank- 
lin's whistle,  it  will  cost  more  than  it  is  worth. 

We  will  extract  one  other  remark  from  the  writer 
above  quoted,  which  is,  that  "  although  practice  has 
long  ago  shown  the  necessity  of  animal  manures  for 
the  above-mentioned  crops  [wheat  and  turnips],  still 
chymical  analysis  alone  could  ever  have  explained  the 
reason  for  this  necessity ;  thus  placing  the  advanta- 
ges to  be  derived  from  the  science  in  a  truly  promi- 
nent and  important  hght." 

BONE  MANURE. 

Since  bone  manure  has  become  accessible  to  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  fanning  community,  by 


MANURES.  133 

the  erection  of  bono-mills  at  Albany,  Waterford, 
New-York,  Boston,  and  other  places,  and  is  likely 
to  come  into  more  extensive  use  as  its  value  is  bet- 
ter appreciated,  we  propose  to  give  some  account 
of  its  fertilizing  properties,  of  the  soils  and  crops 
which  it  is  calculated  most  to  benefit,  of  its  mode  of 
application,  the  quantity  that  should  be  applied  to 
the  acre,  &c.  In  doing  this,  we  shall  draw  our  facts 
principally  from  the  report  of  the  committee  of  the 
Doncaster  Agricultural  Association — a  society  which 
has  rendered  eminent  service  to  the  agricultural 
community,  in  different  departments  of  husbandry, 
by  its  investigations  and  reports. 

With  a  v4ew  of  collecting  facts  to  form  the  basi-s 
of  their  report,  the  committee  addressed  seventetin 
queries  to  the  most  intelligent  farmers  of  the  coun- 
try, embracing  men  of  science,  and  asking  answers 
to  their  interrogatories  in  regard  to  this  manure. 
Forty-nine  answers  were  returned.  From  these  the 
committee  made  out  their  report ;  and  it  is  the  sub- 
stance of  this  report  we  are  about  to  give. 

Bone  manure  had  been  used  by  those  to  whom 
the  queries  were  addressed  for  an  average  period 
of  twenty  years.  "  Our. correspondents,"  says  the 
report,  "  with  only  two  exceptions,  all  concur  in 
stating  it  to  be  a  higlty  valuable  manure,  and  on 
light,  dry  soils,  superior  to  farmyard  dung  and  all 
other  manures."  In  copying  the  language  of  one 
of  them  in  relation  to  dry,  sandy  soils,  we  express 
the  opinions  repeated  by  the  far  greater  number. 
"  I  consider  bone  for  tillage  one  of  the  most  useful 
manures  which  has  ever  been  discovered  for  the 
farmer's  benefit.  The  lightness  of  carriage,  its  suit- 
ableness for  the  drill,  and  its  general  fertilizing  prop- 
erties, render  it  peculiarly  valuable  in  those  parts 
where  distance  from  towns  makes  it  impossible  to 
procure  manure  of  a  heavier  and  more  bulky  de- 
scription. The  use  of  the  bones  diminishes  labour 
at  a  season  of  the  year,  too,  when  time  is  of  the  first 


184  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

importance ;  for  one  wagon-load  of  a  hundred  and 
twenty  bushels  of  small  drill-bones  is  equal  to  forty 
or  fifty  carf-loads  of  field  manure." 

"Upon  very  thin-sand  land,"  say  the  committee, 
"its  value  is  not  to  be  estimated;  it  is  not  only 
found  to  benefit  the  particular  crop  to  which  it  is 
applied,  but  extends  through  the  whole  course  of 
crops,  and  even  in  the  succeeding  course  its  effects 
are  visible  in  the  improved  quality  of  the  land,  and 
the  efficiency  of  a  smaller  quantity  than  would  have 
first  ensured  a  crop."  Numerous  facts  are  here  cited 
in  proof  of  this  declaration  of  the  committee.  Where, 
for  instance,  in  a  district  of  many  thousand  acres, 
turnips  would  produce  only  tops,  and  those  very 
small,  the  use  of  bones  alone  has  increased  the  tur- 
nip-crop in  some  cases  ten,  and  in  few  cases  less 
than  five  fold ;  and  all  the  succeeding  crops  of  grain 
and  grass  were  amazingly  improved. 

On  light  loams,  provided  they  are  dry,  bones  were 
found  preferable  to  yard  dung ;  but  they  do  not  seem 
to  benefit  wet  soils  at  all. 

On  heavy  loams  and  clays  the  experiments  were 
unfavourable;  and  the  committee  infer  that  clay 
soils  are,  in  general,  too  moist  to  receive  any  con- 
siderable benefit  from  bone  manure. 

Upon  peat  soils,  thoroughly  drained,  the  advanta- 
ges of  bone  manure  were  very  striking.  Fifteen  to 
twenty  bushels  per  acre  were  found  to  surpass,  very 
far,  the  ordinary  dressing  of  farmyard  dung,  and 
even  lime  and  pigeons'  dung. 

Upon  gravels,  the  opinions  of  its  efficacy  are  con- 
tradictory.    Upon  wet  ones  it  does  not  succeed. 

As  to  its  durability — three  acres  were  boned  with 
one  hundred  and  fifty  bushels  per  acre  by  mistake. 
Fourteen  years  after,  the  land  had  not  forgotten  it, 
but  was  nearly  half  as  good  again  as  the  other  part, 
farmed  precisely  in  the  same  way,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  this  single  dressing  of  bones. 

To  the  question,  Do  you  continue  to  use  bones ! 


MANURES.  135 

not  one  in  the  forty-nine  returned  an  answer  in  the 
negative.    Their  use  was  rapidly  increasing. 

Upon  grass,  either  for  meadow  or  pasture,  their 
effect  was  favourable,  the  herbage  being  improved 
in  quality  and  quantity.  Six  hundred  bushels  were 
spread  upon  twenty-four  acres  of  a  dairy-farm,  of 
dry,  sandy  gravel,  which  had  been  laid  down  ten 
years.  The  effect  was  to  produce  double  the  butter 
from  the  cows  depastured  upon  it  to  those  which 
were  fed  upon  like  pasture  not  boned. 

The  general  application  of  bone-dust  in  England 
is  to  the  turnip-crop,  one  of  the  most  important  in 
British  husbandry ;  and  the  opinions  as  to  the  best 
mode  of  applying  it,  whether  in  drills  ^or  broadcast, 
are  various,  though  the  former  opinion  rather  pre- 
vails. 

As  to  the  size  of  the  bones,  the  opinion  is  in  fa- 
vour of  half-inch  bones.  Mr.  Burk  says,  "  If  I  were 
to  till  for  early  profit,  I  would  use  bones  powdered 
as  small  as  sawdust :  if  I  wished  to  keep  my  land  in 
good  heart,  I  would  use  principally  half-inch  bones, 
and  in  breaking  these  I  should  prefer  some  consid- 
erably larger."  "  By  using  bones  of  a  large  size, 
with  dust  in  them,"  says  another  correspondent,  "  I 
think  I  have  sufficient  of  tlie  small  particles  to  set 
the  crop  forward,  and  sufficient  of  the  large  particles 
left  to  maintain  the  land  in  good' condition  for  the 
last  crop"  in  the  course. 

In  regard  to  the  quantity  to  be  applied  to  an  acre, 
although  the  committee  admit  that  the  average  of 
the  returns  is  thirty-nine  bushels,  they  neverthe- 
less recommend,  as  a  sufficient  dressing,  twenty- 
five  bushels  of  the  small  size  and  forty  bushels  of 
the  half-inch,  giving  to  the  poorer  lands  a  greater, 
and  to  the  richer  a  smaller  quantity. 

Some  of  the  correspondents  prefer  raw  or  fresh 
bones,  and  some  those  which  have  been  boiled,  and 
the  glue  and  oil  extracted. 

Without  going  into  farther  detail,  we  shall  close 


136^^  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

our  notice  of  the  report  by  copying  a  summary  of 
the  deductions  wliich  the  committee  draw  from  the 
facts  they  collected.     They  are  as  follow : 

"  On  dry  sands,  limestone,  chalk,  light  loams,  and 
peat,  bones  are  very  valuable  manure. 

They  may  be  laid  on  grass  with  good  effect. 

On  arable  lands,  they  may  be  laid  on  fallow  for 
turnips,  or  used  for  any  of  the  subsequent  crops. 

That  the  best  method  of  using  them,  where  broad- 
cast, is  previously  to  mix  them  up  with  earth,  dung, 
or  other  manures,  and  let  them  lie  to  ferment. 

That,  if  used  alone,  they  may  be  either  drilled  with 
the  seed  or  sown  broadcast. 

That  bones.which  have  undergone  the  process  of 
fermentation  are  decidedly  superior  to  those  which 
have  not. 

That  the  quantity  should  bo  about  twenty-five 
bushels  of  dust  or  forty  bushels  of  large,  increasing 
the  quantity  if  the  land  be  impoverished. 

That  upon  clays  and  heavy  loams  it  does  not  yet 
appear  that  bones  will  answer." 

From  the  foregoing  data,  the  farmer  will  be  able 
to  judge  how  far  bone  manure  is  adapted  to  his  soil ; 
and,  from  estimating  its  cost  and  transportation,  he 
can  calculate  the  economy  of  purchasing  and  apply- 
ing it.  In  the  report  before  us,  it  is  computed  to  be 
cheaper  at  2s.  (48  cents)  per  bushel  for  manuring, 
than  yard  dung  at  IO5.  ($2  40)  the  load,  the  price 
the  latter  is  stated  at  in  I3ritain.  The  price  at  the 
mills  in  this  state  is  $14  to  $16  per  ton,  which  would 
bring  it  to  more  than  40  cents  a  bushel.  So  that  to 
manure  an  acre  with  twenty-five  bushels  would  cost 
about  $10  75,  besides  transportation  and  spreading. 
This  dressing  would  be  equal  to  that  afforded  by 
twenty  common  loads  of  manure,  which  ought  to  be 
estimated  to  be  worth  50  cents  a  load,  besides  the 
expense  of  hauling  it  out  and  spreading  it.  It  would 
therefore  seem  to  be  cheaper  than  stable-manure ; 
and,  at  all  events,  it  would  afford  a  valuable  auxilia- 


MANURES. 


137 


ry  where  manure  is  scarce,  or  has  to  be  brought 
from  a  distance. 

As  it  is  necessary,  for  the  investigation  »f  this 
subject,  that  the  component  parts  of  bones  should 
be  understoo(l  by  every  one  interested  in  their  use 
as  a  manure,  I  submit  an  extract  from  an  analysis 
by  that  eminent  chymist,  Mr.  Hatchett.     He  says  : 

"  The  component  parts  of  bones  are  chiefly  four, 
viz.,  the  earthy  salts,  fat,  gelatine,  and  cartilage. 

"  The  earthy  salts  are  three  in  number. 

"1.  Phosphate  of  lime. 

"  2.  Carbonate  of  Unle. 

"  3.  Sulphate  of  Ume. 

"  The  proportion  of  fat  seems  to  vary  from  one 
sixth  to  one  fourth  of  the  weight  of  the  bone." 

Annexed  is  also  a  table,  calculated  from  experi- 
ments made  from  the  bones  of  various  animals  (by 
the  same  chymist) : 


100  part,  con- 
tain of  ihe 

Gelatine. 

Phojpliale  of 
Lime. 

Carbonate  of 
Lime. 

Loa. 

TotaL 

Horse .  .  . 

Ox 

Sheep . . . 
Swme. .  . 

Calf 

Elk 

9 
3 
16 

17 
25 
1.5 

67.5 

93 
70 
52 
54 
90 

1.25 
2 

0.5 

1 
i' " 

22.25 

2 

13.5 
30 
21 

7.5 

100 
100 

100 
100 
100 
100 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  bones  of  tlie  calf  afford 
the  most  gelatine,  and  those  of  the  ox  and  horse  the 
least,  except  the  elk. 

The  gelatine,  the  most  beneficial  portion  to  the 
land,  is  also  an  important  ingredient  in  making  port- 
able soups  and  in  the  manufacture  of  glue  ;  and 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that,  in  most  cases,  the  gela- 
tine is,  with  the  fat,  extracted  from  the  bones,  by 
boiling  or  otherwise,  before  they  are  sent  to  the  mills 
to  be  crushed  for  manure.* 

*  Cliaptal  says  that  this  renders  the  bones  comparatively 
worthless,  by  depriving  them  ol  tiieir  most  fertilizing  properties. 
See  Chaptal's  Chymistry  applied  to  Agriculture,  Harpers'  edi 
tion,  p.  162. 


•138  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRr. 


LEACHED   ASHES. 

In  ^33,  a  lot  of  land  falling  under  my  manage- 
ment which  had  then  recently  been  purchased  at 
$30  per  acre,  seven  acres  of  it  (and  perhaps  the 
least  valuable  part,  which,  in  my  opinion,  never  pos- 
sessed fertility,  though  it  is  usually  called  woni-out 
land,  being  a  sandy  plain  with  gravelly  subsoil)  were 
ploughed  and  rolled,  in  order  to  secure  for  the  ben- 
efit of  the  crop  what  little  valuable  matter  might  be 
turned  under ;  about  1600  bushels  of  leached  ashes 
were  spread  upon  the  piece,  and  it  was  sowed  with 
ten  quarts  of  millet  and  sixteen  pounds  of  Southern 
or  small  clover  seed  to  the  acre.  The  season  proved 
dry  and  the  seed  took  badly  :  the  crop  of  millet  was 
ten  tons  by  estimation,  and  was  sold  for  $180.  Nine- 
teen tons  of  clover  were  supposed  to  have  been  ob- 
tained the  two  succeeding  years  at  four  cuttings ; 
and  this  was  sold  for  $316.  The  clover  having 
nearly  all  perished  in  the  winter  of  1835-6,  it  was 
pastured  the  season  following,  and  last  year,  1 136 
bushels  of  ashes  having  been  applied  to  it,  it  was 
again  sowed  with  millet,  and  stocked  as  before  with 
Southern  clover,  twenty  pounds  to  the  acre.  The 
product  was  thirteen  tons  of  millet,  for  which  I  cred- 
ited the  owner  $2*21,  retaining  it  for  my  own  use. 
Like  results  have  been  obtained  from  similar  treat- 
ment of  the  same  description  of  soil  in  various  in- 
stances ;  this  not  having  been  selected  because  the 
most  striking,  but  because  the  amount  for  which 
the  crops  sold  fixes  their  value,  without  knowing 
exactly  the  quantity  produced,  which  in  each  case 
has  been  supposed.  The  labour  bestowed  on  the 
lot  was  more  or  less  tijknded  with  other  business  of 
the  farm  ;  it  is  therefore  difficult,  a't  this  period  of 
time,  to  ascertain  the  amount.  I  beUeve,  however, 
it  did  not  exceed  the  charge  in  the  subjoined  ac> 
count. 


MANURES.  139 

Cost  of  land $210  00 

"      ashes  for  both  dressings         ....  21554 

Seed  fordo.        ...                                          .  41  25 

Ploughing  lOJ  days 21  GO 

Rolling  3i          do 7  00 

Harrowing  3i    do 7  00 

Carting  outside  furrows 7  50 

Sowing  3  days 3  00 

Carting  and  spreading  ashes 54  00 

Cutting, curing, and  housing41  tons  millet  and  clover  123  00 

Five  years  taxes 2  10 

Interest  accruing  on  transaction        ....  46  00 

$737  39 
Cr. 

By  produce  sold,  amounting  to $717  00 

Value  of  pasturage 15  00 

Value  of  lot  in  its  present  condition  ...        385  00 

$1,117  00 
737  39 

$379  61 

There  is  reason  to  suppose,  from  present  appear- 
ances, that  the  lot  in  question  will  cut  two  tons  of 
clover  this  season  per  acre  ;  it  will  therefore  be  seen 
that  my  valuation  is  not  a  high  one.  A  repetition 
of  the  treatment  it  has  received  would  no  doubt  im- 
prove still  more  the  texture  of  the  soil,  though  I  am 
inclined  to  tliThk  there  might  be  a  falling  oflf  instead 
of  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  its  products  by  sub- 
sequent ashings.  Should  this  be  the  case,  it  would 
indicate  a  suitable  condition  for  more  permanent  im- 
provement by  manuring. 

PEAT  EARTH,  PEAT  ASHES,  &C. 

In  the  number  of  the  Cultivator  for  .Tanuary,  1839, 
p.  191,  a  correspondent,  in  noticing  "  a  recently  pub- 
lished account  of  the  proceedings  of  the  British  As- 
sociation for  the  advancement  of  Science,"  as  to  the 
improvement  of  peat-bogs,  and  the  use  of  peat- moss 
or  turf  as  a  manure,  speaks  of  the  preparation  of  the 


140  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY* 

latter  in  barnyards,  and  of  expelling  from  the  turf, 
through  that  mode  of  preparing  it,  the  qualities  with 
which  it  is  imbued,  when  taken  from  the  swamps, 
deleterious  to  vegetation.  I  began,  some  months  ago, 
the  use  of  it,  in  some  degree,  after  the  modes  advert- 
ed to  by  the  members  of  the  association ;  and  have, 
from  information  I  have  been  able  to  obtain  from 
emigrants,  and  from  my  own  observation  and  read- 
ing, been  led  to  a  series  of  experiments  with  it. 
Though  the  results  are  not  yet  as  complete  as  I 
hope  eventually  to  make  them,  I  apprehend  that 
what  I  have  thus  far  observed  may  be  useful.  I  ap>- 
ply  the  turf  in  a  variety  of  ways  :  First,  after  the 
mode  of  preparing  it  in  compost,  directed  by  Lord 
Meadowbanks,  "  which  was  printed  and  distributed 
gratis  among  the  Scotch  peasantry  many  years  a^o, 
and  which  has  ever  since  been  highly  approved  of, 
both  by  practical  and  scientific  cultivators,"  in  Scot- 
land, Ireland,  and  generally  in  all  the  European 
countries  in  which  peat  is  to  be  found.  That  meth- 
od has  been  described  in  former  numbers  of  the  Cul- 
tivator, and  will  be  found,  in  all  its  essential  particu- 
lars, in  Fessenden's  New-England  Farmer  and  Rural 
Economist,  pages  209  to  212,  and  in  Loudon's  Ency- 
clopaedia of  Agriculture.  Composts  have  been  made 
by  me  which,  when  prepared  in  strict«eonformity  to 
those  directions,  have  fully  justified  them.  Through 
this  means,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  trebling  or  four- 
folding  an  ordinary  farm  supply  of  manure,  and  which 
may  (as  the  authors  say)  "  be  used  weight  for  weight 
as  farmyard  manure,  and  will  be  found,  in  a  course  of 
cropping,  fully  to  stand  the  comparison."  Whenever 
I  have  deviated  from  the  track  laid  down,  I  have 
found  that  a  strict  pursuit  of  the  old  practice  was 
the  better,  and  have  returned  to  it.  In  particular,  I 
find  the  necessity  not  only  of  avoiding  the  compres- 
sion of  the  compost  heap  by  the  ti-ead  of  the  men  or 
cattle  employed,  but  the  expediency  of  throwing  into 
it  every  vegetable  material  which  may  contribute  to 


MANURES.  141 

Keep  it  light  and  as  springy  as  possible.  I  also  find 
it  most  prudent  to  avoid  compression  through  rais- 
ing the  heap  above  the  allotted  height. 

My  supply  of  turf  to  this  time  has  been  taken  from 
a  swamp  about  five  feet  deep,  of  about  two  thirds  of 
an  acre,  one  half  of  which,  down  to  the  clay  subsoil, 
I  have  used  in  composts  or  otherwise,  and  which  I 
propose  tilling  the  coming  summer.  I  have  also 
used  the  turf  in  bottoming  my  barn  and  cattle  yard, 
stables  and  hog-sties,  and  in  burning  it  for  ashes. 
My  first  application  of  it  to  manuring  began  with  the 
last  spring. 

The  ashes  were  used  as  I  have  already  stated  in 
a  previous  number,  and  I  can  assure  you  my  clover 
and  grass  crops  fully  justified  all  the  anticipations  I 
was  authorized  to  make.  •  Some  of  my  neighbours, 
of  excellent  practical  information  in  ordinary  mat- 
ters, attempted  to  dissuade  me  from  the  use  of  it. 
A  f<iw  days  before  my  harvest,  I  asked  them  to  call 
and  see  a  result  I  wished  to  exhibit  to  them.  Lead- 
ing them  to  a  stand  a  short  distance  from  a  field  to 
which  the  ashes  had  been  applied,  I  pointed  their 
attention  to  a  very  visible  line  which  could  be  traced 
across  a  part  of  the  field,  and  asked  them  if  they 
could  perceive  a  difference  on  its  two  sides.  Ad- 
mitting it,  I  asked  them  to  accompany  me  to  the  line, 
and  to  follow  it  across  the  field,  observing  to  them, 
that  for  the  wheat-crop  of  the  preceding  fall,  the  ma- 
nuring on  both  sides  of  the  line,  and  the  seeding  for 
wheat,  for  timothy,  and  for  clover  had  been  precisely 
similar ;  but  that,  in  the  spring,  an  application  had 
been  made  to  the  field  to  improve  the  grass,  which 
was  found,  however,  not  to  be  sufficient  for  the  whole 
field,  and  became  exhausted  on  the  land  at  which  the 
line  was  visible.  On  examining  the  course  of  the 
whole  line,  the  clover  on  the  side  to  which  the  ashes 


142  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

had  been  applied,  even  to  the  last  rast  of  the  shovel, 
was  nearly  double  the  hcierht  and  i'.xuriance  of  the 
other,  and  far  belter  loadi.':  .viih  blossoms ;  and  here 
I  said,  my  friend,  is  the  line  up  to  which  my  turf- 
ashes,  of  which  you  disadvised  the  use,  have  beeB 
appUed.  Fortunately,  in  spreading,  it  run  out  on  ihia 
land,  and  thus  has  attbrded  me  an  opportunity  of 
again  consulting  with  you  as  to  its  usefulness. 

My  mode  of  burning  has  also  been  heretofore  de- 
scribed in  the  Cultivator,  and  my- experience  has 
convinced  me  of  the  policy  of  smothering  the  fire, 
and  burning  the  turf  as  slowly,  and  confining  as  much 
of  the  smoke  during  the  combustion  as  possible. 
My  heaps  are  generally  four  to  six  weeks  in  burn- 
ing. That  the  turf  is^  purely  vegetable  will  be  per- 
ceived from  the  fact  that"  twenty  cart-loads  of  turf 
are  necessary  to  produce  one  of  ashes.  Sand  or 
clay  are  not  destructible  by  combustion,  and  would, 
if  present,  have  been  found  still  the  same  in  bulk 
and  visible  to  the  eye  ;  none,  hoAvever,  can  be  dis- 
covered in  the  ashes ;  and  this  may  be  considered  as 
a  fair  method  of  testing  the  question  as  to  how  much 
of  mossy-earth  the  turf  contains. 

The  correspondent  in  the  Cultivator  before  al- 
luded to  queries  as  to  the  application  of  sulphuric  acid 
for  converting  turf  into  manure,  and  for  fertilizing  a 
turf  soil.  This  induces  me  to  call  attention  to  facts 
which  have  ever  been  witnessed  by  me  :  around  al- 
most every  opening  of  the  heap  through  which  the 
smoke  issues,  an  oily  substance  resembling  sulphur 
will  be  perceived.  Bottoming,  before  covering  them 
with  litter,  the  shelters  under  my  barn  and  sheds,  as  I 
always  do,  to  the  height  of  about  twelve  inches,  with 
turf,  in  order  that  it  may  absorb  the  stale  and  moist- 
ure of  the  place,  I  have  observed  that  though,  when 
taken  there  dry  from  the  swamp,  the  turf  is  perfectly 
devoid  of  all  smell,  after  having  been  thus  used  it 
becomes  as  sensibly  acid  to  the  smell  as  the  most 
sour  lemon.  In  turning  it  over,  the  acid  exhalation 
cannot  but  be  perceptible  to  every  by-stauder. 


MANURES.  143 

All  writers  upon  turf,  in  speaking  of  its  antiseptic 
properties,  say  it  is  imbued  with  a  phosphoric  acid, 
having  some  affinity  to  gallic  acid  or  tannin,  and 
which  renders  it,  in  that  state,  anti-putrescent,  and, 
consequentIj%  deleterious  to  vegetation.  It  will  dry- 
rot  and  pulverize  when  exposed  to  the  air,  and  is  in 
that  state  pernicious,  because  it  has  not  gone  through 
the  fermentation  necessary  to  render  it  soluble,  and 
fitting  food  for  plants.  The  fermentative  decay  and 
solution  of  vegetable  and  animal  substances  afford 
to  vegetation  its  proper  nutriment.  The  turf,  it  will 
be  perceived,  when  used  in  compost,  and  in  contact 
with  fermentative  manures,  attracts  to  itself  and  ab- 
sorbs so  much  of  the  putrescent  exhalations  as  is 
necessary  to  expel  the  acid  which  checks  its  decay, 
in  common  with  the  manure  placed  in  juxtaposition 
with  it.  If  this,  then,  be  a  tendency  of  the  turf  in  the 
compost,  why  should  it  not  operate  similarly,  though  in 
a  less  degree,  in  the  earth  to  which  it  is  applied,  and, 
so  far  from  affording  nutriment  to  surrounding  ve- 
getation, attract  it  to  itself,  and  absorb  the  putrescent 
or  fermentative  substances  already  in  the  soil !  In 
the  first  instance,  it  has  always  been  said,  and  it  is 
no  doubt  true,  that  the  turf,  while  saturated  with  the 
acid,  is  remotely  deleterious  to  vegetable  growth 
and  to  the  soil ;  and  after  having,  within  the  soil, 
taken  to  itself  what  will  promote  its  decay,  it  prob- 
ably gives  it  back,  and  does  become  in  some  degree 
beneficial  as  a  manure.  It  may  well  be  that  sulphu- 
ric acid  will,  by  its  action  on  the  turf,  accelerate  the 
souring  to  which  I  have  adverted,  and  thus  promote 
the  decay  of  the  turf.  Turf  was,  for  a  long  while, 
the  source  of  disappointment  as  a  manure,  until  the 
principles  applied  to  it  by  Lord  Meadowbanks  were 
scientifically  explained  and  brought  into  practice. 

In  the  spring  and  in  the  fall,  immediately  after  car- 
rying out  the  supply  of  manure  from  my  cattle- 
yards  and  hogsties,  I  bottom  them  anew  with  turf 
to  the  depth  of  at  least  a  foot,  covering  it  with  six 


144  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

inches  of  seaweed  or  drift.  To  the  accumulation  of 
the  place  during  the  winter,  when  little  is  to  be  lost, 
in  fermentative  manures,  by  solar  heat  or  evapora- 
tion, I  cart  around  the  yard  and  spread  on  its  upper 
edges,  some  eight,  ten,  or  more  feet  wide,  the  empty- 
ings of  my  stables  and  yard-sheds,  with  the  litter- 
ed surface  occasionally  of  my  hogpens  (which  are 
placed  in  the  centre  of  my  barnyard).  The  feeding- 
racks  and  moveable  pens  are  from  time  to  time 
shifted,  that  the  turf  and  seaweed  may,  by  the  tread 
and  droppings  of  the  cattle,  and  the  occasional  moist- 
ure of  the  yard,  be  worked  together,  and  the  turf  sat- 
urated with  them  as  much  as  practicable.  The  main 
part  of  the  manure,  being  placed  on  the  upper  sides 
of  the  yard,  in  settling  down  to  the  centre  and  to- 
wards the  barnyard  drain,  passes  necessarily  among 
the  bottoms  of  the  turf  and  seaweed,  which  thus  be- 
come imbued  with  the  substances  necessary  ft)  pre- 
pare them  for  the  fermentative  decay,  which  the  acid 
of  the  one  and  the  saline  impregnation  of  the  other 
require  for  ihem.  In  the  spring,  as  soon  as  solar 
heat  may  induce  a  tendency  to  fermentation,  and 
consequent  evaporation  and  loss,  the  yards  are  turn- 
ed over  with  a  plough  or  the  shovel,  that  the  whole 
may  be  so  commingled  that  the  turf  may  attract  and 
absorb  the  waste  which  would  otherwise  ensue.  At 
the  lowest  part  of  the  barnyard,  and  that  to  which 
everything  from  the  farmhouse,  kitchens,  farming- 
yards,  and  stables  tends,  I  have  a  cemented  cistern 
or  tank  capable  of  containing  250  hogsheads.  The 
windmill  and  horse  power  of  the  yard  is  connected 
with  this  tank  by  pulleys,  straps,  and  chain  buckets, 
so  that  if,  during  the  winter,  spring,  or  summer,  1 
think  best  to  wet  my  compost  heaps,  hogsties,  or  any 
of  the  yards  with  those  drainings,  the  power  is  con- 
veniently applied,  and  by  leaders  the  draining  is 
thrown  back  to  settle  again  through  the  mass  and 
return  to  the  tank.  The  compost-yard  adjoins  the 
barnyard ;  and  is  so  graded,  that  if  the  drainings  from 


MANURES.  145 

the  tank  be  thrown  on  to  the  heaps,  after  settling 
.hrough,  they  return  by  box  under-drains  into  the 
yardb  and  tank.  If  a  surpkis  is  still  on  hand,  a  cart 
with  a  hogshead  and  sprinkler  is  used,  with  which, 
in  a  four  to  one  diluted  state,  I  irrigate  such  grass- 
lands as  I  think  may  be  benefited  by  it,  or  my  grain 
crops  in  such  parts  of  a  field  as  I  apprehend  may 
v/ant  it :  an  excellent  method  of  readil}'  adding  to 
the  manure,  and  of  forcing  those  parts  of  a  field 
which  in  the  spring  are  perceived  to  want  manuring; 
or  my  garden  is  fertilized  and  forced  by  it  to  any 
state  of  productiveness  which  can  be  effected  by  such 
an  application  of  the  most  stringent  and  prompt  in 
its  influence,  of  all  manures.  The  last  spring,  in 
spots  where  my  wheat  did  not  thrive  comparatively, 
applying  it  with  a  watering-pot,  the  grain  advanced 
and  outstripped  the  surrounding  parts  of  tlie  crop, 
which  before  had  afforded  better  promise  of  thrift. 
Pouring  a  pint  of  it  into  a  hill  of  corn,  of  potatoes,  or 
of  vines  of  any  kind,  will  be  found  to  give  an  aston- 
ishing impulse  to  them. 

The  filling  and  driving  of  the  cart,  of  sprinkling  it 
on  the  field,  or  applying  it  to  the  hill  or  garden,  is  the 
work  of  the  barnyard  power,  a  boy,  horse,  cart, 
sprinkler,  and  watering-pot.  The  cart  and  its  sprink- 
ler, in  its  form  and  use,  is  in  all  respects  like  those 
employed  in  cities  for  sprinkling  the  streets.  To 
irrigate  and  manure  drilled  crops,  the  sprinkler 
should  be  taken  from  the  rear  of  the  cart,  and  two 
of  them  should  be  hung  parallel  with  the  shafts  and 
over  the  drills. 

During  the  heavy  rains  of  the  fall  and  spring, 
should  the  drainings  of  the  yard  accumulate  and  fill 
the  tank,  and  not  be  otherwise  wanted,  the  surplus  is 
let  off  into  a  muck-road,  embanked  on  the  sides,  and 
filled  to  the  depth  of  ten  to  fifteen  inches  with  sea- 
weed, turf,  turf  ashes,  and  a  small  supply  of  manure, 
and  made  gradually  to  percolate  and  settle  down- 
ward through  a  distance  of  from  four  to  six  hundred 
feet  in  length  and  twenty  in  breadth,  and  throusrh 
which  mucK-road  cattle,  carts,  and  vehicles  of  everv 

I.— M 


146  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

kind,  when  it  w  not  too  wet,  are  forced  to  find  their 
way,  to  break  up  and  mix  its  contents  with  the  drain- 
iiigs  of  the  baniyard.  Until  the  drainings  of  the 
yards  have  reached  the  farthest  extent  of  this  road, 
they  should  not  be  applied  to  agricultural  uses.  Be- 
fore driving  my  cattle  from  my  yards,  if  it  becomes 
necessary  to  do  so,  and  always  two  or  three  times  a 
day  when  its  surface  is  moist,  a  boy,  as  a  standing 
rule,  drives  them  for  exercise  several  times  round 
the  yards,  the  better  to  bring  the  manure  in  contact 
with  the  bottomings.  I  have  other  modes,  not  here 
explained,  by  which  I  readily  avoid  the  access  to  my 
yards  and  tank  of  the  excess  of  drenching  rains, 
when  the  storms  are  heavy  and  of  long  duration. 
This  I  may  explain,  if  desirable,  on  another  occasion. 
"Within  the  last  year  I  have  lost  none — absolutely 
none! — of  the  leaching  of  my  yards  and  stables.* 

•  *' The  modern  agriculturist,  he  thought,  did  not  pay  suffi- 
cient attention  to  the  manures  made  in  the  foldyard.  Some- 
times he  had  been  ashed  how  his  fattening  .inimals  paid  him  for 
the  trouble  of  producing  thetn.  This,  however,  could  not  be 
answered  by  a  mere  reference  to  the  sum  he  obtained  for  them 
by  sale,  but  there  was  a  variety  of  circumstances  to  be  consid- 
ered liefore  he  could  answer  it  properly.  For  instance,  the 
quantity  of  manure  obtained  from  them  was  one— not  wet  straw, 
but  good  manure.  There  was  another  thing  which  required  at- 
tention: when  the  manure  was  carried  from  the  foldyard  into 
the  fields,  it  was  suffered  to  lie  in  a  large  heap  for  a  long  time; 
so  long,  indeed,  that,  before  it  was  spread  upon  the  land,  its  qual- 
ities had  perished.  He  was  aware  that  it  required  a  certain 
lime  for  fermentation  to  take  place,  but  it  was  frequently  left  till 
such  fermentation  had  passed  off.  It  was  his  practice,  as  soon 
as  the  heaps  were  raised  on  the  field,  to  throw  a  quantity  of 
mould  upon  them,  and  thus  prevent  evaporation  taking  place  too 
rapidly.  Proper  attention  ought  also  to  be  paid  to  draining  the 
foldyard.  The  produce  saved  was  now,  in  ten  out  of  twieve  in- 
stances, lost.  It  would  be  advisable,  when  (he  ynrd  had  a  fall,  to 
establish  conveniences  for  catching  it,  and  then  convey  it  to  the 
lands.  In  France  and  the  Netherlands  they  were  extremely 
careful  in  preserving  this  liquid  manure,  and  the  peasants  ii.igbt 
be  seen  conveying  it  out  to  the  fields,  and  giving  each  plant  a 
proper  proportion."— ShiUilo  in  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agric ul- 
*ur0. 


MANURES  147 

To  this  it  will  be  said  by  some,  it  is  laborious  and 
expensive.  Not  so  much  so  as  may  be  apprehended, 
or  as  would  be  the  case  with  others  not  assisted 
with  mechanical  powers  and  under-drains  as  I  ani ; 
but  what  I  have  thus  done  at  some  expense,  others 
may  do,  in  a  great  degree,  for  a  mere  trifle,  and  la 
a  way  that  I  may  hereafter  suggest. 

I  assume,  as  a  standard,  the  fact  that  farmers  with 
us  pay  one  dollar  per  load  for  manure,  and  that  this 
is  a  criterion  by  which  to  form  an  estimate  of  the 
labour  or  capital  which  may  profitably  be  bestowed 
in  obtaining  it  as  I  do.  If  this  be  the  true  criterion 
for  judging,  every  day's  labour  I  expend  in  produ- 
cing it  is  worth  twenty-fold  the  sum  I  pay  my  hands 
to  effect  it. 

Turf  affords  an  invaluable  medium  for  saving  the 
waste  of  manure,  and  for  increasing  its  amoimt  and 
usefulness ;  and  it  is  better  than  rich  mould,  earths, 
or  the  pearings  and  bottoms  of  ditches,  inasmuch  as 
it  is  all  vegetable,  and  in  itself,  strictly  speaking,  a 
manure,  when  properly  prepared. 

The  contents  of  stables,  barnyards,  and  cattle  and 
hog  pens  should  never  be  exposed  to  the  solar  heat 
or  to  fermentative  evaporations,  or  their  drainings 
lost,  when  turf,  or  any  inert  vegetable  substance,  oi 
surplus  farm  materials  of  a  vegetable  or  animal  na- 
ture abound ;  nor  should  animal  substances,  fish  or 
any  other,  be  suffered  to  waste  their  effluvia  in  the 
air  when  such  materials  can  be  had.  For  all  use- 
ful purposes,  enough  of  the  agricultural  influence  or 
effect  of  manure  is  produced  as  soon  as  vegetable  or 
animal  decay  is  sure  to  progress.  From  that  moment 
a  compost  should  be  resorted  to,  and  the  heat  and 
action  of  the  manure  (which  is  sure  and  irresistibly 
powerful)  be  thus  brought  to  operate  on  substances 
to  which  this  propensity  has  not  been  sufficiently 
imparted.  In  this  state,  all  that  is  ordinarily  wasted 
tends  to  a  useful  result  in  augmenting  tlie  mass. 

It  is  a  commt»n  practice  to  bury  fish,  preparatory 


148  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

to  their  use  as  a  manure,  in  common,  raw  earth. 
The  most  soluble  of  ordinary  manures,  it  is  soon 
dissipated  by  atmospheric  action,  and  leaves  on  the 
soil  to  which  it  has  been  applied  a  raw  earth,  in  its 
then  condition  injurious  to  it.  .1  find  it  far  more 
beneficial  to  bury  the  fish  in  turf  and  in  turf  ashes, 
seven  loads  to  one  of  fish  (in  Loudon,  it  is  said,  of 
turf  alone,  even  20  to  1),  which  the  decay  of  the  fish 
will  make  an  excellent  ahd  very  powerful  manure, 
and  one  which  will  endure  long  after  the  fish  will 
have  done  their  office  in  the  soil  and  disappeared.* 

W.  A.  Seely. 

Wheat  Sheaf  Farm,  Staten  Island,  Jan.  18, 1839. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

IMPROVEMENT  OF  GRASS- LANDS. 

Of  Pasture. — Of  Meadow.— On  converting  Arable  or  Plough 
Land  into  Permanent  Meadow  or  Pasture. — Report  on  Grass 
es  and  Grass-Lands. 

Although  the  alternation  of  grass  and  grain  crops 
is  deemed  most  profitable,  on  soils  and  in  situations 
which  will  admit  of  this  kind  of  husbandry,  yet  there 
are  many  situations  in  which  this  alteniate  change 
caiuiot  be  carried  into  effect  without  manifest  preju- 
dice to  the  interests  of  the  cultivator.  There  are 
some  soils  so  natural  to  grass  as  to  yield  an  undi- 
minished product  for  many  years,  almost  without 
care  or  expense.  There  are  others,  upon  the  banks 
of  streams  which  frequently  overflow,  which  it  is 

*  For  much  valuable  information  on  the  use  of  lime  a.^  a  ma- 
nure, seir  the  very  full  and  able  article  by  .M.  Piivis.  m  Chyrii- 
istry  applied  to  Agriculture,  p.  2(U,  tt  »eq.,  published  by  Haipt^r 
&  Brdner*. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS-LANDS.  14?' 

prudent  to  keep  in  grass,  lest  the  soil  should  be  worn 
away  by  the  rapid  flood  of  the  waters.  Others, 
again,  are  too  precipitous  or  too  stony  to  admit  of 
arable  culture.  Nor  should  we  conceal  the  fact, 
that  it  is  still  a  controverted  point  whether  rich, 
stiff  clays  are  not  most  profitable  when  permanent- 
ly appropriated  to  grass.  Whatever  causes  prevail, 
the  fact  is  indisputable,  that  a  considerable  portion 
of  our  lands  are,  and  will  continue  to  remain,  in 
meadow  and  pasture.  It  is  with  the  view  to  aid  the 
farmer  in  correcting  any  defects  that  may  exist  in 
such  grass-grounds,  and  in  improving  and  keeping 
them  in  condition,  that  we  ofter  the  following  sug- 
gestions.    And,  first, 

OF    PASTURE. 

The  evils  that  are  experienced  in  pasture-grounds 
are,  the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  best  grasses ; 
the  growth  of  mosses  and  weeds  in  their  stead;  and 
the  prevalence  of  coarse  herbage  in  situations  where 
there  exists  a  superabundance  of  moisture.  Where- 
ever  there  are  stagnant  waters,  as  upon  flat  surfaces, 
the  pasture  is  rendered  peculiarly  unhealthy  for 
sheep ;  but  it  is  remarked,  that  if  the  water  is  in 
continued  motion,  as  is  generally  the  case  upon  the 
declivities  of  hills  and  mountains,  no  ill  consequences 
follow. 

To  remedy  the  evils  we  have  enumerated,  and  to 
improve  the  condition  of  pasture-grounds,  one  or 
more  of  the  following  expedients  may  be  advanta- 
geously resorted  to,  viz.,  sowing  and  harrowing  in 
grass-seeds,  scarifying,  bushing,  draining,  manuring, 
and  top-dressing  with  marl  or  lime. 

Grass-seeds  may  be  sown  either  in  the  autumn  or 
spring,  followed  by  the  harrow,  and,  if  practicable, 
by  the  roller.  The  harrow  partially  extirpates  the 
mosses,  breaks  and  pulverizes  the  surface,  and  buries 
the  seeds ;  and  the  roller  presses  the  earth  to  the 
seeds  and  smooths  the  surface.     The  bush-harrow 


150 


AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 


is  to  be  preferred.  This  may  be  constructed  by  in- 
terweaving some  strong  but  pliant  branches  of  trees 
through  the  open  squares  of  a  heavy  harrow,  which 
thus  forms  an  efficient  brush,  and,  when  drawn  over 
tlie  ground,  performs'  its  duty  perfectly  duruig  a 
short  distance ;  but  the  branches  being  pressed  close, 
and  worn  by  the  motion,  soon  become  so  flat  as  not 
to  have  the  effect  of  spreading  the  earth  thrown 
upon  the  surface  by  earth-worms,  or  ground-mice, 
or  ants.  It  is  therefore  recommended  in  British 
Husbandr)',  as  a  better  mode,  to  fix  the  branches 
upright  in  a  frame,  placed  in  the  front  part  of  the 
carriage  of  the  roller ;  by  which  means  they  can  be 
80  placed  as  to  sweep  the  ground  effectually,  and, 
when  worn,  can  be  moved  a  little  lower  down,  so  as 
to  continue  the  work  with  regularity.  This  opera- 
tion also  completely  breaks  and  scatters  the  manure 
dropped  on  the  field  by  the  stock,  and  partially  in- 
corporates it  with  the  surface-mould. 

Scarifying  is  cutting  the  sod  and  loosening  the 
surface.  Conckhn's  Press-harrow  is  a  suitable  im- 
plement for  this  purpose.  We  also  subjoin  the 
drawing  of  an  implement  constructed  for  this  pur- 
pose, which  we  take  from  British  Husbandry,  calcu- 
lated to  be  drawn  by  a  one  or  two  horse  team. 


This  implement  is  intended  to  cut  the  sod  perpen- 
dicularly, so  far  down  as  to  sever  the  roots  of  the 
grass,  which  occasions  it  to  throw  out  fresh  ones. 
It  slices  the  sod  without  tearing  it,  and  should  be 
constructed  with  a  number  of  very  sharp  coulters, 
fixed  into  a  crossbeam  at  such  distances  as  may  be 


IMPROVEMENT    OF-  GRASS-LANDS.  151 

thought  advisable,  say  from  six  inches  to  a  foot,  and 
of  a  width  according  to  the  strength  intended  to  be 
employed  in  drawing  it.  The  blades  should  be  oc- 
casionally whetted  to  preserve  their  edge,  and  the 
implement  should  be  used  when  the  ground  is  in  a 
moderute  state  of  moisture,  and  the  grass  short.  If 
the  land  is  poor  or  moss-bound,  it  may  be  passed 
crosswise.  It  is  best  adapted  to  moist  clays  which 
do  not  contain  stones  or  gravel.  It  is  advantageous- 
ly used  to  precede  the  sowing  of  grass-seeds.  The 
foot- wheel  is  to  regulate  the  depth  of  the  work. 

Draining  improves  the  quality  of  the  herbage,  and 
marling  or  liming  increases,  the  quantity.  It  is  re- 
marked, that  animal  dung,  when  dropped  on  coarse 
pastures,  produces  little  or  no  benefit ;  but  when 
calcareous  matters  have  been  laid  upon  the  surface, 
the  finer  grasses  soon  take  possession  of  it. 

Manures  alone  are  seldom  applied  to  pasture, 
especially  with  us ;  but  applied  in  the  form  of  com- 
post, as  a  top-dressing,  they  are  serviceable.  Gyp- 
sum and  spent  ashes  may  be  used  with  undoubted 
benefit  in  most  cases. 

It  need  hardly  be  added,  that  bushes,  thistles,  and 
other  perennial  weeds  obstruct  the  growth  of  grass, 
and  that  they  should  be  carefully  extirpated. 

Our  pasture-grounds  are  generally  left  to  take 
care  of  themselves  ;  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  some 
expense  bestowed  upon  their  improvement,  in  some 
of  the  modes  above  suggested,  would  be  profitably 
laid  out. 

OF  MEADOW. 

The  crop  being  here  annually  carried  off,  it  b3- 
comes  a  matter  of  necessity,  if  the  field  is  to  be  kept 
permanently  in  grass,  to  apply  manure  occasionally, 
if  we  would  prevent  a  diminution  of  product.  It  is 
aflSrined  that  a  perfectly  thick  bottom  cannot  be 
maintained  on  permanent  meadows  in  England,  un- 
less it  is  manured  every  second  vear     Gypsum  wiU 


152  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

eflfect  much  here  upon  dry  soils,  though  there  its 
effects  arc  equivocal ;  but  gypsum  alone  will  not 
suflice  even  here.  The  average  product  upon  our 
old  grass-lands  will  hardly  average  over  a  tou  and  a 
half  to  the  acre.  With  a  biennial  or  triennial  top- 
dressing  of  dung  or  compost,  where  the  sod  is  in 
good  condition,  it  is  beheved  the  average  would  be 
double. 

Meadows  are  subject  to  all  the  evils  that  are  ex- 
perienced in  pastures  from  mosses,  wetness,  and  the 
diminution  of  the  finer  grasses,  besides  the  greater 
exhaustion  of  fertility  consequent  upon  carrying  off 
the  annual  growth ;  and  the  same  measures  are  best 
adapted  to  renovate  them.  Meadows  are  generally 
depastured  after  the  hay  has  been  taken  off  and  the 
rowen  partially  grown.  "  After  the  cattle  have  been 
removed,"'  says  iui  EngUsh  writer,  "  the  land  is  bush- 
harrowed  and  rolled.'''  It  has  been  stated,  though 
some  question  the  fairness  of  the  experiment,  that 
the  operation  of  heavy  rolling  has  been  found  to  add 
six  or  seven  hundred  weight  of  hay  per  acre  to  the 
produce  of  the  crop.* 

The  effect  of  pasturing  meadows  in  the  spring 
upon  the  coming  grass-crop  has  been  a  matter  upon 
which  farmers  have  differed,  though  all  agree  that 
heavy  cattle  should  not  be  kept  on  so  late  in  au- 
tumn, or  put  on  so  early  in  spring,  as  to  injure  the 
sole  of  the  sod  by  poaching  it  when  in  a  wet  state. 
Mr.  Sinclair  has  stated,  that  a  given  space  of  the 
same  quality  of  grass  having  been  cut  towards  the 
end  of  March,  and  another  space  of  equal  size  left 
uncut  till  the  last  week  in  April,  the  produce  of  each 
having  afterward  been  taken  at  three  different  cut- 
tings, ilial  of  the  space  last  cut  exceeded  the  former 
in  tiie  proportion  of  three  to  two ;  and  in  one  in- 
stance during  a  dry  summer,  the  last  cropped  space 
exceeded  the  other  as  nearly  two  to  oue.f    It  is 

♦  Derbyshire  Report,  vol.  ii.,  p.  83. 

t  Treatise  on  Agriculture,  p.  113,  U4,  Harpers'  edition. 


IMPROVEMENT    OF  GRASS-LANDS.  153 

generally  conceded  that  it  is  better  to  feed  off  rowen 
than  to  cut  it  as  a  second  crop. 

ON    CONVERTING    ARABLE    OR    PLOUGH-LAND    INTO    PER- 
MANENT   MEADOW    OR    PASTURE. 

The  first  obstacle  to  encounter  is  the  practice,  yet 
loo  prevalent,  of  throwing  plough-land  into  old  field 
or  pasture,  without  stocking  it  with  grass-seeds. 
We  lay  it  down  as  an  unerring  rule  in  good  hus- 
bandry, that  ploughed  fields  intended  to  be  convct- 
ed  in  pasture  or  meadow  should  be  well  stocked 
with  grass-seeds ;  and,  as  next  in  importance,  that 
as  many  species  of  grass-seeds  be  sown  as  can  be 
procured  or  are  adapted  to  the  soil ;  and  that,  if 
possible,  there  be  included  the  seeds  of  those  grass- 
es which  are  either  indigenous  to,  or  which  are 
found  to  thrive  well  in,  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood, and  in  similar  soils.  The  reasons  for  recom- 
mending several  species  are  these :  Each  kind  has 
its  particular  season  of  growth,  and  exhausts  a  par- 
ticular food  in  the  soil ;  and  by  multiplying  the  num- 
ber, we  are  more  apt  to  obtain  a  constant  growth  of 
herbage,  and  a  far  more  abundant  supply  of  feed. 
Thus,  for  instance,  say  a  square  foot  of  surface  will 
support  but  six  stocks  of  timothy ;  this  grass,  grow- 
ing neither  very  early  nor  very  late,  the  herbage 
would  neither  be  abundant  nor  permanent.  But  the 
same  square  foot,  which  would  support  but  six  plants 
of  timothy,  would  support,  at  the  same  time  (because 
every  kind  requires  its  specific  food),  six  plants  of 
five  other  species,  say  meadow  fox-tail,  red  clover, 
white  clover,  orchard,  and  tall  oat-grass,  or  species 
of  the  agrostis  or  fescue  families.  Of  these  six 
kinds,  some  one  would  be  in  luxuriant  growth  at  all 
seasons,  and  the  herbage  would  be  increased  from 
three  to  four  fold,  if  the  soil  be  good,  by  the  admix- 
ture of  the  different  seeds. 

We  cannot  too  often  repeat,  that  pastures  and 
meadows  are  almost  as  much  benefited  by  a  rich 


154  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

soil,  and  a  soil  moist,  not  wet,  as  arable  husbandry. 
The  food  of  the  grass,  as  well  as  of  the  grain  crop, 
must  come  mainly  from  the  soil ;  and  if  this  food  is 
scanty,  the  crop  will  in  like  manner  be  scanty. 
And,  again,  the  more  nutritious  grasses  will  not 
grow  on  soils  habitually  wet, 

"The  products  of  natural  meadows,"  says  Arm- 
strong, "  have  been  carefully  and  skilfully  analyzed 
in  Germany,  in  Italy,  in  England,  and  in  France ; 
and  the  result  shows  that  wet  meadows  contain  the' 
smaller  number  of  the  different  species  of  plants, 
but  the  greater  number  of  those  which  are  either 
useless  or  injurious ;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
moist  meadows  contain  the  greater  number  of  the 
former,  and  the  smaller  num^r  of  the  latter.  The 
following  simple  table  exhibits  at  a  glance  the  pres- 
ent state  of  knowledge  on  this  imjxjrtant  part  of  our 
subject : 

No.  or  Plants.      Uiaeful.      CKlea  or  baiL 

In  wet  meadows  ...        30  4    '  26 

In  dry         "  ...        38  8  30 

In  moist     "...        42  17  25 

"  The  agricultural  labours  suggested  by  these 
factJ  are  of  two  kinds :  the  eradicating  of  useless, 
pernicious  plants,  and  the  continuance  and  mulMpli- 
cation  of  those  which  are  good.  The  first  of  these 
objects  is  promoted  by  mowing  the  meadows  before 
the  seeds  of  noxious  plants  ripen,  by  pasturing  them, 
om  e  in  three  years,  with  sheep,  horses,  and  cattle 
in  succession ;  by  harrowing  them  in  the  spring  and 
fall  J  by  destroying  by  hand  pereimial  weeds ;  and, 
lastly-,  by  sufficiently  draining  those  that  are  wet. 

"  Many  pernicious  plants  are  annuals,  and  are  kill- 
ed by  the  first  of  tliese  operations.  A  similar  effect 
is  produced  by  the  second ;  the  harrow  or  scarifier 
will  destroy  mosses  or  other  weeds  whose  roots 
are  fibrous  and  superficial ;  the  hand-hoe  will  extir- 
pate such  tap-rooted  plants  as  resist  the  harrow  and 
are  refused  by  cattle ;  and  Iraining  will  expel  all 
worthless  aquatics." 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS-LANDS.  165 

In  order  to  obtain  seet'ls  of  indigenous  kinds  which 
are  not  to  be  had  in  the  shops,  it  is  common  in  Eu- 
vo])c  to  have  the  seeds  carefully  gathered  by  chil- 
dren, which,  being  sown  on  a  well-prepared  piece  of 
ground,  and  taken  care  of,  will  soon  yield  seeds  for 
farm-culture.  It  is  easier  to  accommodate  the  plant 
to  the  soil  than  to  adapt  the  soil  to  the  plant. 

In  laying  down  lands  to  permanent  meadow  O) 
pasture,  it  is  all-important  to  have  the  soil  perfectly 
broken  and  pulverized ;  as  the  future  value  of  th& 
crop  will  depend  upon  the  perfect  germination  of  the 
seeds,  and  this  cannot  be  expected  without  a  thor- 
ough pulverization  and  preparation  of  the  soil.  1\ 
is  also  important  to  sow  plenty  of  seed.  The 
ground,  to  be  sure,  will  sustain  and  nourish  only  a 
certain  number  of  plants ;  yet  it  is  better  to  go  tC' 
an  extra  expense  for  seed  than  to  have  a  deficiency 
of  plants.  It  is  usual,  in  Britain,  to  sow  from  ten 
to  sixteen  pecks  of  grass-seed  to  the  acre  on  lands 
intended  for  permanent  grass,  and  from  six  to  & 
dozen  species.  Another  practice  there,  entitled  to 
our  notice,  in  laying  down  lands  permanently  to 
grass,  is  to  sow  grass-seeds  exclusively,  that  is,  un- 
accompanied with  any  sort  of  grain.  A  good  turf  is 
the  main  object ;  and  if  grain  is  sown  with  the  grass- 
seeds,  it  robs  the  soil  of  much  of  the  food  which  is 
necessary  to  nurture  the  young  grass,  and  perma- 
nent value  is  thereby  sacrificed  to  temporary  and 
comparatively  trifling  profit. 

The  best  time  for  sowing,  for  permanent  grass-lknds, 
is  said  to  be  the  early  part  of  autumn,  say  in  August 
or  the  first  of  September,  in  order  that  the  plants 
may  become  well  established  before  winter.  Or, 
the  more  hardy  kinds  may  be  sown  then,  and  the  ten- 
derer kinds  sown  upon  the  same  field  in  the  spring, 
as  we  sow  clover  upon  the  winter-grain.  As  the 
seeds  of  grasses  are  generally  small,  the  use  of  the 
roller,  to  pulverize  and  press  the  earth  upon  them, 
and  to  smooth  the  surface,  is  almost  indispensable 


156  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

in  good  husbandry.  It  is  considered  of  great  advan- 
lage  10  give  a  light  dressing  of  compost  or  of  rotted 
dung  to  young  grass ;  and  to  avoid  feeding  it  with 
heavy  animals  the  first  year,  before  the  turf  has 
thickened  and  become  firm. 

If  the  grounds  laid  down  in  grass  are  intended  for 
permanent  meadow,  reference  should  be  had  to  the 
grasses  which  are  fit  for  the  scythe  at  nearly  the 
same  time.  For  information  on  this  point,  we  refer 
to  p.  30,  vol.  iv.,  and  to  pages  11,  33,  47,  and  63,  vol. 
iii.,  of  the  Cultivator. 

Should  pasture  and  meadow  be  made  to  alternate, 
or  should  fields  be  kept  exclusively  for  each  1  The 
American  practice  is  not  to  alternate  ;  and  yet  there 
seems  to  be  substantial  reasons  for  a  contrary 
course.  The  object  in  both  cases  is  to  obtain  the 
greatest  quantity  and  the  best  quality  of  food  for 
farm-stock ;  and  this  object  is  promoted  in  both 
cases  by  scarifying,  draining,  and  top-dressing.  La- 
bour is  as  profitably  laid  out  in  improving  our  pas- 
ture as  our  meadow  grounds.  But  feeding  and  mow- 
ing have  different  efl'ecls  upon  the  soil.  In  one  case 
the  crop  is  annually  carried  off,  and  in  the  other  con- 
sumed upon  the  ground.  JMeadows,  therefore,  di- 
minish in  fertility,  while  pasturing  increases  the 
productive  powers  of  the  soil.  Is  it  not  proper,  for 
this  reason  alone,  to  alternate,  in  order  to  keep  up 
fertility  ]  But  there  is  another  argument :  pastures 
soon  abound  with  biennial  and  perennial  plants,  as 
thistles,  mulleins,  &c.,  which,  as  cattle  do  not  con- 
sume them,  mature  and  shed  their  seed,  and  multiply 
rapidly ;  whereas,  if  they  are  occasionally  converted 
to  meadows,  these  plants  would  be  cut  down  before 
the  seed  matured,  and  at  least  the  biennials  would 
be  soon  extirpated.  These  weeds  are  as  prejudicial 
in  pastures,  in  diminishing  the  quantity  of  herbage 
as  they  are  in  meadows,  and  the  same  good  manage- 
ment requires  their  extirpation  in  both. 

Something  depends  tm  the  size  of  enclosures.     SraaU 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  GRASS- LANDS.    157 

enclosures,  say  ten  acres,  are  believed  to  be  better 
than  large  ones.  Grass  grows  better  when  there  is 
no  stock  upon  it  than  wlien  it  is  subjected  to  the 
constant  tread  of  heavy  animals  ;  hence  it  is  deemed 
economical  to  shift  cattle  occasionally  from  one  en- 
closure to  another.  Another  advantage  of  small  en- 
closures is,  it  enables  the  farmer  to  keep  different 
classes  of  stock  separate,  and  thereby  prevent  inju- 
ries, which  ofter  occur  to  weaker  animals  from  run- 
ning with  stronger  ones. 

"  Respecting  the  stocking  of  enclosures  (we  quote 
from  British  Husbandry),  it  is  the  opinion  of  the 
most  intelligent  graziers,  that  the  cattle  fed  upon 
them  should  be  divided  in  the  following  manner. 
Supposing  four  fields,  each  containing  a  nearly  equal 
quantity  of  land,  one  of  them  should  be  kept  entirely 
free  from  stock  until  the  grass  has  got  up  to  its  full 
growth,  when  the  prime  or  fattening  cattle  [or  the 
cows,  where  the  dairy  is  the  prominent  business] 
should  be  put  into  it,  that  they  may  get  the  best  of 
the  food ;  the  second  best  should  then  follow ;  and, 
after  them,  either  the  working  or  store  stock,  with 
lean  sheep  to  eat  the  pastures  close  down :  thus 
making  the  whole  of  the  stock  eat  over  the  four  en- 
closures in  this  succession : 
No.  1.  Clear  of  stock,  and  reserved  for  the  fattening 

beasts  or  cows. 
No.  2.  For  the  fatting  beasts  till  sent  to  No.  1. 
No.  3.  For  the  second-best  cattle,  until  forwarded 

successively  to  Nos.  2  and  1. 
No.  4.  For  stores  and  sheep  to  follow  other  cattle, 

then  to  be  shut  up  until  the  grass  is  again 

ready  at  No.  1  for  the  fattening  beasts," 

p.  482. 
"  Land  that  is  constantly  motvn  must  also  be  fre- 
quently manured,  or  it  will  be  thrown  out  of  heart." 
There  is  no  doubt  on  this  point.  If  the  crop  is  fre- 
quently carried  off,  and  nothing  in  the  shape  of  ve- 
getable matter  returned  to  the  soil,  the  land  must  and 


158  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY 

will  deteriorate,  till  the  crop  will"  not  pay  the  laboui 
of  gathering  it.  Those,  therefore,  who  will  have 
good,  permanent  meadows,  must,  once  at  least  in 
four  years,  give  it  a  bountiful  top-dressing  of  dung. 

[We  add  here  the  following  concise  but  valuable 
report  made  to  the  Agricultural  Society  of  this  state, 
on  grasses  and  grass-lands,  by  L.  E.  Allen,  Esq.,  of 
Buffalo,  merely  remarking  that  we  fully  concur  in' 
the  opinion  expressed,  that  the  quantity  of  grass- 
seeds  sown  is  in  most  cases  far  too  limited.] 

BEPORT    ON   GRASSES   AND    GRASS-LAIfDS. 

The  committee  on  laying  down  grass-lands,  &c., 
report : 

In  the  consideration  of  this  subject,  but  two  dis- 
tinct propositions  submit  themselves  t*  the  reflec- 
tion of  the  committee ;  and,  first :  our  soils  in  the 
Northern  states  may  be  ranged,  for  the  purpose  of 
this  report,  into  two  classes  :  the  tenacious,  whether 
clayey,  loamy,  or  vegetable ;  and  the  silicious  oi 
sandy.  These  are  sufficiently  well  known  to  every 
farmer  without  analyzation.  The  first  division  of 
these  soils  may  be  termed  "natural  grass-lands;" 
the  second  requires  the  grasses  to  be  frequently  cul- 
tivated by  rotation  with  other  crops,  and,  for  the 
present  purpose,  may  be  termed  "  artificial"  soils  for 
grasses. 

In  the  management  of  the  first,  the  committee  feel 
warranted  in  the  assertion  (and  for  the  truth  of  this 
they  appeal  to  the  innumerable  instances  in  all  parts 
of  the  Northern  states,  where  large  and  productive 
tracts  of  meadow  and  pastures  have  been  in  uninter- 
rupted grass-culture  for  more  than  half  a  centuiy), 
that,  so  far  as  has  yet  been  tried,  lands  may  be  kept 
in  grass  for  such  a  length  of  time  as  "  the  mem- 
ory of  man  runneth  not  to  the  contrary."  It  is  true 
that  thece  so>ls  wiH  not,  more  than  others,  bear  con* 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS-LANDS.  159 

tinual  cropping  without  occasional,  nourishment, 
with  impunity ;  but  when  once  well  seeded,  by  the 
ajjplication  of  various  manures,  among  which  that 
of  the  barnyard  is  the  best,  and  in  the  absence  of 
close  after- feeding,  they  will  yield  grass,  as  the  com 
mon  saying  is,  "almost  for  ever." 

In  many  sections  of  our  country,  where  vegetable 
loam  preponderates  upon  a  clayey  or  a  hardpan  sub- 
soil, the  ploughing  up  of  meadows  and  pasture-lands 
for  many  years  is  almost  destructive  to  their  future 
production  of  grass  ;  and  it  is  only  by  long  and  regu- 
lar applications  of  mixed  and  rich  manures  that  they 
can  be  brought  back  to  their  primitive  luxuriance 
In  proof  of  this  remark,  your  committee  need  only 
refer  to  some  of  the  most  celebrated  and  productive 
grazing  districts  of  the  state,  where  the  staple  grass- 
es of  our  country  have  been  always  successfully  cul- 
tivated. In  frequent  instances,  perhaps  in  a  large 
majority  of  cases,  lands  of  this  description,  which 
have  been  cleared  within  the  last  fifty  years,  and  are 
now  occupied  as  pasture  and  meadow,  have  never 
been  ploughed,  but  remain  in  the  same  uneven  con- 
dition of  surface  as  they  were  left  when  the  harrow 
followed  the  first  grain  and  grass-seed  which  were 
deposited  in  them  after  clearing.  Great  reluctance 
is  usually  manifested  in  disturbing  these  fields,  al- 
though somewhat  inconvenient  to  the  mower,  their 
proprietors  being  so  well  satisfied  with  their  annual 
crops  as  to  prefer  the  old  adage,  and  "let  well 
enough  alone."  Your  committee  have  witnessed 
instances  of  this  description  of  soil,  which  have  been 
for  thirty  years  in  grass,  and  but  slightly  manured, 
and,  under  very  ordinary  cultivation,  producing  in  a 
common  season  two  or  three  tons  of  the  finest  hay 
per  acre.  Such,  however,  are  extraordinaiy  cases 
m  favourable  positions.  An  ordinary  crop  may  be 
one  to  two  tons  per  acre,  according  to  the  care  and 
attention  of  the  farmer. 

It  is  true  that  these  lands  may  become  exhausted. 


160  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY 

and  the  grass  "  run  out,"  as  the  term  goes,  through 
bad  husbandry  and  neglect ;  but  the  application  of 
yard-manures,  of  new  grass-seetis  and  the  harrow, 
will,  in  nearly  all  instances,  restore  them  to  thcii 
wonted  luxuriance.  It  need  hardly  here  be  slated, 
that  irrigation,  draining,  and  other  artificial  stimu- 
lants may  be  important  to  the  productiveness  of  the 
meadow  and  the  pasture  ;  but,  as  these  always  sug- 
gest themselves  to  the  judgment  and  good  sense  of 
the  cultivator,  they  do  not  necessarily  come  within 
the  province  of  this  discussion.  The  quantity  of 
seed  sown  to  the  acre,  for  either  pasture  or  meadbw, 
should  not  be  less  than  half  a  bushel ;  the  kind  or  va- 
riety to  depend  somewhat  upon  the  soil  and  its  situ- 
ation. For  mowing,  the  red  clover,  timothy,  and 
red-top  are  the  best  and  most  desirable.  For  pasture, 
the  same,  with  the  addition  of  white  clover  and  blue 
or  June  grass,  which  are  almost  everywhere  indi- 
genous to  the  soil,  and  are  among  the  richest  and 
most  nutritious  of  all  our  grasses.  In  fine,  the  sim- 
plest methods  compatible  with  the  established  rules 
of  good  husbandry,  your  committee  believe,  with 
such  soils,  are  the  best  for  their  profitable  and  per- 
petual cultivation. 

In  treating  the  second  proposition,  viz.,  the  culti- 
vation of  grasses  on  the  lighter  soils,  your  commit- 
tee will  remark,  that  much  must  necessarily  be  left 
to  the  judgment  of  the  cultivator  as  to  the  time  that 
his  lands  are  to  be  kept  in  grass,  depending  upon  his 
own  necessities,  or  what  he  requires  from  his  land. 
As  a  general  rule,  if  the  raising  of  grass  be  an  object, 
so  long  as  the  lands  produce  well,  either  from  their 
natural  fertility  or  by  the  application  of  artificial 
stimulants,  they  should  not  be  disturbed ;  but  when 
the  object  is  a  regular  rotation,  with  a  strict  regard 
to  the  greatest  profit,  two  to  four  years  is  sufficient 
for  the  benefit  of  the  land,  and  as  long  as  such  soils 
will  usually  yield  a  grass-crop  that  will  pay.  It  is 
better  that  the  soils  be  properly  prepared,  by  pre- 


IMPROVEMENT    OF    GRASS-LANDS.  161 

vious  grain  or  root  crops  and  abundant  manuring, 
and  by  harrowing  and  rolling,  for  the  reception  of 
grass-seeds,  and  that  the  manures  of  the  farm,  save, 
perhaps,  lime,  ashes,  and  plaster,  be  withheld  for 
the  use  of  the  current  ploughed  crops,  rather  than 
to  expend  them  upon  the  grasses ;  yet  much  must 
depend  upon  the  local  position  of  the  ground,  the 
climate,  and  the  dry  or  moist  condition  of  the  soil. 

The  descriptions  of  grasses  best  fitted  for  these 
soils  are,  so  far  as  our  experience  has  yet  tested,  the 
red  clover  and  timothy.  They  are  strong,  hardy, 
and  rich  in  their  properties,  universally  known  and 
cultivated,  and  have,  in  competition  with  all  rival  ex- 
periments, maintained  their  reputation  and  superior- 
ity. The  proportions  of  seed  distributed  on  the  soil 
may  vary  wfith  the  views  of  the  cultivator,  as  he  in- 
tends it  for  hay  or  for  pasture,  and  may  range  from 
one  to  two  thirds  of  either  variety ;  but  in  no  case, 
for  tharough  seeding,  should  the  combined  quantity 
be  less  than  from  half  a  bushel  to  three  pecks  per 
acre.  The  great  fault  with  our  farmers  is,  that  they 
do  not  half  seed  their  grass-lands,  the  usual  allow- 
ance being  less  than  half  the  quantity  recommended. 
As  to  the  time  and  manner  of  seeding,  your  commit- 
tee unhesitatingly  recommend  the  earliest  spring,  oh 
a  light  loam  ;  or,  if  that  be  wanting,  while  the  ground 
is  yet  unsettled,  on  a  crop  of  winter-grain.  If  this 
be  not  practicable,  the  other  best  plan  would  be  ei- 
ther sowing  with  spring-grain,  or  seeding  in  the  sum- 
mer with  buckwheat  or  turnips,  as  the  occasion  may 
demand. 

Ploughing  into  the  soil  an  occasional  grass-crop 
for  its  renovation,  in  the  absence  of  stimulating  ma- 
nures, cannot  be  too  highly  recommended  in  the 
lighter  soils ;  and  for  succeeding  crops  of  almost 
any  description,  this  process  is  also  highly  advanta- 
geous, and  may,  without  hesitation,  be  always  rec- 
ommended. 

As  the  discugsion  of  this  subject  at  greater  length 
I.— N 


162  AMEAICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

would  lead  your  committee  into  minute  details  not 
required  by  their  duties  on  this  occasion,  they  beg 
leave  to  close  their  communication  with  the  follow- 
ing suggestion  to  all  who  would  cultivate  grasses  : 

Read  attentively,  and  follow  the  practical  rules 
laid  down  in  the  best  agricultural  papers  of  the  day, 
and  no  intelligent  farmer  need  be  at  a  loss  to  under- 
stand how  he  may  most  successfully  cultivate  his 
lauds  with  grasses. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

PLANTS. 

The  Germination  of  Seeds. — Roots  and  Leaves. — Extent  of  the 
Roots  of  Plants. 

THE   GERMINATION    OF   SEEDS. 

Seeds  often  fail  to  grow ;  and  the  seedsman  is  of- 
ten found  fault  with  for  vending  bad  seeds,  when 
they  are  really  good,  and  when  the  cause  of  their 
not  growing  is  owing  to  the  gardener  or  planter.  To 
induce  germination,  moisture,  atmospheric  air,  and 
a  certain  temperature  are  indispensable;  and  it  is 
also  requisite  that  light  be  excluded  from  the  seed 
until  the  nutriment  in  it  is  exhausted,  or  until  the 
root  can  draw  nourishment  from  the  soil.  The  first 
effect  of  the  air,  heat,  and  moisture  upon  the  seed  is 
to  change  its  properties ;  to  convert  its  starch  into 
sugar — into  a  sort  of  milky  pulp,  the  proper  food  of 
the  embryo  plant.  If  at  this  stage  the  seed  becomes 
dry,  its  vitality  is  believed  to  be  destroyed ;  but  if 
the  agents  referred  to  are  permitted  to  exert  their 
influence,  the  contents  of  the  seed  swell  by  degrees, 
and  the  point  of  the  future  root  being  formed,  breaks 
through  the  shell  iu  a  downward  direction,  while, 


PLANTS.  1 63 

about  the  same  time,  the  point  of  the  future  stem 
comes  forth  in  an  upward  direction.  The  presence 
of  air,  heat,  and  moisture  are  afterward  as  indispen- 
sable to  the  growth  of  the  plant  as  they  were  to  the 
germination  of  the  seed. 

Now  it  often  happens,  that  when  seeds  are  planted 
in  fresh-stirred  ground,  or  when  the  soil  is  moist, 
they  undergo  the  incipient  process  of  fermentation, 
and  the  earth  not  being  pressed  upon  them,  and  dry 
weatlier  ensuing,  the  moisture  is  abstracted,  and  the 
seeds  perish.  Too  much  moisture  is  also  often  de- 
structive to  the  vital  principle  of  seeds ;  while  others, 
again,  are  buried  too  deep  to  be  vivified  by  solar  and 
atmospheric  influence.  The  first  object  in  planting, 
therefore,  should  be,  to  place  the  seed  just  so  far  un- 
der the  surface,  and  to  cover  it  with  so  much  earth,  as 
shall  barely  secure  to  it  a  constant  supply  of  moist- 
ure. There  are  many  seeds,  as  of  the  carrot,  parsnip, 
orchard-grass,  &c.,  which,  if  not  previously  steeped, 
or  the  soil  well  pulverized  and  pressed  upon  them, 
fail  to  grow  for  want  of  moisture.  Hence,  in  sow- 
ing orchard-grass,  it  is  found  prudent  to  spread  the 
seed  upon  a  floor  and  sprinkle  it  with  water,  and  to 
pass  a  roller  over  the  ground  after  it  is  sown.  And 
hence,  in  loose  garden  mould,  it  is  advisable  to  press 
the  earth  with  the  hoe  or  the  spade  upon  all  light 
seeds  after  they  are  sown. 

But  we  would  draw  the  attention  of  the  farmer, 
as  well  as  of  the  gardener,  to  another  mode  of  pre- 
venting failure  and  disappointment  in  the  growth  of 
certain  seeds  ;  and  that  is,  by  sprouting  them  before 
they  are  planted.  This  may  be  conveniently  done 
with  Indian  corn,  pumpkins,  mangold-wurzel,  beets, 
&c.,  on  the  farm,  and  with  melons,  cucumbers,  beans, 
peppers,  and  a  great  number  of  other  seeds  which 
are  assigned  to  the  garden.  The  mode  of  doing  it 
with  the  field-seeds  we  have  named  is  this :  steep 
them  from  twelve  to  twenty  hours  in  tepid  water ; 
then  pour  off  the  water,  and  leave  them  in  a  warm 


164  AMERICAN"   HUSBANDRY. 

place,  covered,  to  exclude  the  light  and  prevent  their 
drying,  or  in  a  dark  cellar  or  room,  and  the  radicles 
or  roots  will  shoot  in  a  few  days,  and  may  then  be 
planted  without  injury.  Having  been  obliged  to  sus- 
pend our  planting  for  four  days  on  account  of  rain, 
we  found  our  seed,  which  had  been  previously  steep- 
ed and  set  by  in  a  dark  room,  with  radicles  two  or 
three  inches  long.  It  was  planted,  however,  with 
but  little  inconvenience,  and  did  remarkably  well. 
Mr.  J.  Notl  sprouted  a  part  of  his  corn  last  year,  and 
a  part  of  it  was  not  sprouted  ;  and,  what  is  worthy 
the  particular  notice  of  farmers,  he  assures  us  that 
the  sprouted  com  teas  not  hurt  by  the  wire-worm,  while 
the  unsprouled  seed  was  seriously  injured,  although 
planted  by  the  side  of  each  other.  Mr.  Nott  ac- 
counts for  the  difference  in  this  way  :  the  wire-worm 
attacks  the  chit,  and  feeds  upon  and  destroys  the 
germe :  but  the  radicles  having  already  protruded, 
and  not  being  to  the  taste  of  the  worm,  the  insect 
attacked  the  solid  part  of  the  kernel,  where  its  prog- 
ress was  too  slow  and  too  remote  from  the  germe 
to  retard  its  growth.  Mr.  Nott  also  sprouted  his 
mangold-wurzel-seed,  and  planted  it  as  late  as  the 
27th  of  June.  Almost  every  seed  grew,  and  the 
crop  might  be  called  a  good  one  early  in  September. 

To  sprout  garden-seeds,  procure  two  sods  of  equal 
size,  say  eighteen  inches  square ;  place  one  in  the 
comer  of  the  kitchen  chimney,  with  the  grass  down ; 
lay  your  seeds  upon  it,  and  if  they  are  small,  wrap 
themjn  a  piece  of  brown  paper ;  then  place  the  other 
sod  upon  them,  with  the  grass  up ;  water  well  with 
warm  water,  and  the  seeds  will  sprout  in  from 
twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours. 

There  is  one  manifest  advantage  in  sprouting 
seeds :  it  tests  their  goodness,  and  shows  whether 
they  will  or  will  not  grow.  A  small  quantity  of 
seed-corn  submitted  to  this  test  before  planting, 
would  in  many  instances  prevent  great  loss  to  the 
farmer. 


PLANTS.  165 


ROOTS    AND    LEAVES. 

Plants  may  be  said  to  consist  of  two  great  ps^s, 
the  root  and  the  stem,  with  their  various  appenda- 
ges. But  since  we  are  in  this  place  merely  to  con- 
sider one  function  of  vegetable  life,  namely,  the 
function  o{  absorption,  or  the  manner  in  which  plants 
bring  matter,  external  to  themselves,  within  the 
range  of  their  vital  actions,  we  may  confine  our  yq-a 
searches  almost  entirely  to  the  roots  and  leaves ; 
these  being,  beyond  doubt,  the  parts  by  which  ex- 
traneous matter  is  first  received  into  the  plant ;  and, 
in  the  first  placftj  let  us  examine  the  functions  of  the 
root. 

The  term  root  is  generally  considered  to  include 
all  that  part  of  the  plant  which  is  beneath  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil.  This,  however,  is  not  strictly  cor- 
rect ;  for  many  plants  possess  what  botanists  call 
a  rhizoma,  or  underground  stem.  The  true  root  is 
that  part  of  the  plant  which,  from  the  instant  of  its 
bursting  the  coverings  of  the  seed,  begins  to  direct 
its  course  downward  (or  towards  the  earth's  axis), 
"  with  a  tendency  so  powerful  that  no  known  -force 
is  sufficient  to  overcome  it."  Moreover,  it  diflei's 
from  the  stem  in  many  of  its  characters ;  thus,  it 
does  not  divide  itself  into  smaller  fibres  in  the  regu- 
lar manner  in  which  stems  generally  give  off  their 
branches.  Again,  it  never  produces  leaves  or  scales ; 
and  another  important  distinction  is,  "that  it  never 
becomes  green  (at  least  in  tissue)  when  exposed  to 
the  action  of  air  and  light,  while  all  thfe  other  parts 
of  vegetables,  when  thus  exposed,  assume  that  col- 
our." The  root  is  divided  into  the  body  and  fibres, 
the  latter  of  which  will  alone  claim  our  attention. 
These  fibres  are  furnished  at  their  extremities  with 
a  remarkable  structure,  which,  from  its  resemblance 
to  a  sponge,  has  been  termed  spongiole.  It  consists 
of  an  extremely  loose  texture,  and  is  most  probably 
merely  "  the  ncwl)'^-formed"  internal  "  tissue"  of  the 


166^  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

root  itself,  deprived  of  its  more  dense  coverinsr  or 
cuticle,  as  it  is  termed.  This  opinion  is  very  much 
strettgthened  by  the  well-eslabhslied  fact,  that  roots 
grow  by  their  extremities  only.  In  tliis  manner  the 
spougiolc  is  always  being  renewed ;  and,  what  is  of 
still  more  consequence,  is  never  long  in  one  place. 
On  ihis  account  it  is  that  plants  which  live  many 
years  (if  not  growing  too  near  othei-s  of  the  same 
kind)  are  not  liable  to  die  from  having  exhausted  the 
soil ;  or,  in  other  words,  are  not  liable  to  be  starved 
to  death;  for  it  is  evident  that,  by  the  constant 
change  of  position  of  the  spongiole,  which  is  the  only 
part  of  the  root  by  which  nourishment  is  received 
into  the  plant,  there  must  be  a  constant  supply  of 
food,  so  long  as  the  soil  around  it  contains  any  or- 
ganic matter  in  a  ^fit  state  for  absorption.  It  has 
been  shown,  by  innumerable  experiments,  that  the 
spongioles,  or  absorbent  extremities  of  the  roots, 
cannot  take  up  anything  but  fluids ;  or,  at  ail  events, 
if  they  can  absorb  sohds,  they  must  be  in  such  a 
minute  state  of  division  that  they  would  remain  sus- 
pended in  water  even  for  a  considerable  time,  which 
IS  a  fineness  of  particles  far  greater  than  will  proba- 
bly ever  be  attained  by  any  mechanical  means. 

It  has  likewise  been  proved  that  plants  are  capa- 
ble of  choosing,  to  a  certain  degree,  their  food ;  or,  in 
other  words,  of  selecting  those  substances  which 
are  best  adapted  for  their  peculiar  nature,  and  re- 
jecting what  would  be  injurious.  This  power,  how- 
ever, appears  to  be  limited,  as  it  is  perfectly  possible 
to  destroy  a  "plant  by  giving  it  poison  by  the  roots. 
The  root,  moreover,  has  the  power  of  excretion,  or 
returning  to  the  earth  such  matters  as  are  either 
useless  or  injurious.  From  this  last  property  of 
roots,  we  may  draw  two  valuable  conclusions  :  first, 
that,  in  order  to  poison  a  plant,  the  substance  used 
must  be  capable  of  acting  rapidly,  or  it  will  most 
probably  be  i ejected  before  it  has  had  time  to  pro- 
duce its  effect ;  and,  secondly,  that,  since  plants  reject 


TLAXTS.  167 

substances  useless  and  injurious  to  them,  the  soil 
where  they  grow  may  in  time  become  so  impreg- 
nated with  such  substances  as  to  render  it  incapable 
of  supporting  the  same  species  of  plant  any  longer ; 
or,  at  least,  until  such  time  as  the  rejected  matter 
shall  have  been  decomposed.  The  next  purpose 
which  the  roots  of  all  land,  and  of  the  majority  of 
aquatic  plants,  serve,  is  obviously  to  fix  them  firmly 
in  their  places.  On  this  account,  we  find,  in  man)/ 
cases,  that  a  certain  proportion  exists  between  the 
size  of  the  stem  and  the  root.  This,  however,  is 
subject  to  exceptions.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  in  all 
cases,  an  obvious  relation  may  be  perceived  between 
the /arm  of  the  root  and  the  kind  of  soil  in  which  the 
plant  grows.  Thus,  if  two  specimens  of  the  same 
plant — some  of  the  grasses,  for  example — be  found 
growing,  the  one  in  clayey,  the  other  in  a  sandy  sod, 
it  will  be  seen,  on  examination,  that  the  root  of  the 
one  growing  in  the  sand  is  much  more  minutely  sub- 
divided, and  contains  many  more  small  fibres,  than 
the  one  which  grows  in  clay ;  and  the  reason  of  this 
is  obvious.  We  have  already  seen  that  the  spon- 
gioles  are  the  only  absorbent  parts  of  the  root ;  that 
they  exist  only  at  the  extremities  of  the  smallest 
fibres  ;  and,  moreover,  that  they  can  take  up  nothing 
but  what  is  presented  to  them  in  the  form  of  solu- 
tion. Now,  in  the  clayey  soil,  from  its  retentive 
nature,  the  soluble  parts  are  not  allowed  to  drain 
away ;  and  hence  the  plant  is  supplied  with  food 
near  at  hand,  and,  consequently,  a  few  short  fibres 
are  sufficient.  On  the  other  hand,  plants  growing  in 
sand  are  frequently  deprived  of.  all  fluid  near  them 
by  the  sinking  of  the  soluble  matters  through  the 
loosely  aggregated  soil ;  in  which  case  the  plant 
would  inevitably  perish  from  starvation,  were  it  not 
for  the  wise  law  of  nature,  which  provides  against 
such  calamities  by  endowing  the  roots  of  plants 
placed  under  such  circumstances  with  the  power  of 
shooting  forth  innumerable  minute  fibres  in  all  direc- 


t08  AMERICAN    HU»BANDRY. 

tions,  in  order  that  advantage  may  be  taken  of  every 
drop  of  moisture  which  falls  in  their  neighbourhood. 
Nor  is  it  merely  in  the  number  of  minute  fibres  that 
the  roots  of  plants  growing  in  sand  differ  from  those 
which  inhabit  the  stiffer  soils.  The  form  of  the  body 
of  the  root  is  distinct :  thus,  nearly  all  bulbous  and 
other  large  succulent  roots — as  the  turnip,  for  exam- 
ple— require  sandy  soil ;  and,  moreover,  some  plants, 
as  that  species  of  grass  named  Phleum  pratense 
(meadow  cat's-tail,  or  timothy  grass),  change  the 
form  of  the  root  according  to  the  soil  they  inhabit. 
\n  stiff  clays,  the  plant  just  mentioned  has  a  fibrous 
root,  whereas  in  sand  it  becomes  bulbous,  and  as- 
sumes all  the  characters  of  Phleum  nodosum.  The 
explanation  here  is  as  evident  as  in  the  former  case. 
The  bulbs  of  the  roots  act  as  reservoirs  of  food  for 
the  plant :  thus,  in  very  dry  seasons,  these  buibs 
shrivel  up,  their  fluids  being  all  neededj  by  the  rest  of 
the  plant,  and  hence  withdrawn.  So  beautifully  do 
we  perceive  in  this,  as  in  all  other  cases,  thai  design 
and  adaptation  of  means  to  specific  purpwses,  which 
must  impress  even  the  most  skeptical  with  the  ab- 
solute existence  of  a  Great  First  Cause. t— Madden. 

EXTENT    OF   THE    ROOTS    OF   PLANTS. 

Roots  perform  a  double  ofiice  to  plants:  they 
serve  as  braces  to  keep  them  in  an  upright  position, 
and  they  are  pur\'eyors  to  supply  them  with  food 
suitable  to  their  growth  aad  maturity.  To  enable 
them  to  jjerform  these  oflSces  well,  three  requisites 
in  the  soil  are  essential.  First,  it  is  important  that 
the  soil  be  mellow,  that  the  roots  may  penetrate  it 
freely,  not  only  to  strengthen  their  bracing  power, 
but  to  extend  their  range  for  food,  this  being  absorb- 
ed or  taken  up  by  the  spongioles  or  extreme  points; 
and  the  greater  their  range  the  more  abundant  the 
food  whi^h  they  supply.  Secondly,  it  is  important 
that  this  food  be  in  the  soil,  in  a  soluble  state ;  that 
is,  in  a  condition  to  be  dissolved  by,  and  incorporated 


PLANTS.  169 

with,  the  fluids  in  the  soil.  Tliis  food  consists  of 
vegetable  and  animal  matters,  or  of  whatever  has 
been  snch.  Thirdly.,  it  is  important  that  a  quantity 
of  moisture  be  always  present  in  the  soil,  to  dissolve 
the  focd  of  plants,  or  to  serve  as  the  medium  for 
conveying  it  first  to  the  spongioles,  and  from  thence 
into  and  through  the  plant.  Air,  heat,  and  moisture 
are  all  essential  agents  in  preparing  the  food  of 
plants  in  the  soil,  and  in  giving  vigour  to  vegetable 
growth. 

It  should  be  the  object  of  the  farmer  and  gardener 
to  aid  these  natural  operations  in  cultivated  crops  ; 
and  to  repay  the  soil,  by  labour  and  skill,  for  the  an- 
nual tribute  which  they  draw  from  it.  These  la- 
bours consist  in  returning  to  it  vegetable  food  (ma- 
nure) equivalent  to  that  which  they  annually  take 
from  it ;  in  rendering  it  mellow  and  penetrable  to  the 
roots  of  the  growing  crop;  in  regulating  the  supply 
of  water,  too  much  being  as  hurtful  as  too  little  ;  and 
in  keeping  the  surface  loose  and  porous,  for  the  free 
admission  of  air,  heat,  and  moisture.  Hence  the  ad- 
vantage of  deep  tillage,  perfect  pulverization,  drain- 
ing, manuring,  and  the  frequent  use  of  the  cultivator 
among  drilled  or  hoed  crops ;  and  these  considera- 
tions also  suggest  one  objection  against  using  the 
plough  in  the  culture  of  these  crops,  and  earthing  or 
hilling  them  to  any  considerable  extent ;  as  both  of 
these  modes  of  culture,  ploughing  and  hilling,  tend 
to  curtail  the  natural  range  of  the  roots,  and,  conse- 
quently, to  diminish  the  pasture  and  food  of  the  crop. 

The  depth  and  horizontal  spread  of  roots  are 
greater  than  is  generally  apprehended,  as  they  often 
branch  into  minute  filaments  imperceptible  to  the 
naked  eye ;  still  these  minute  imperceptible  fila- 
ments collect' food  for  the  parent  plant.  Jethro  TuU, 
the  father  of  drill-husbandry,  has  given  us  a  good 
and  satisfactory  illustration  of  the  great  extension  of 
the  roots  of  the  common  turnip,  which  we  here  in- 
sert, not  only  to  convince  ow  readers  of  the  fact,  but 
I.— 0 


170  AMERICAN    HUSBAI<ifDRY. 

to  illustrate  the  importance  of  good  ploughing  and 
thorough  pulverization  in  tillage  husbandry.  We 
invite  attention  to  the  cut,  and  then  to  the  explana- 
tion in  the  words  of  Tull. 

"A  method  to  find  the  distance  to  which  roots  extend 
horizontally. — A  piece  or  plat,  dug  and  made  fine,  in 
tcAo/s,  hard  ground  (Fig.  1),  the  end  A  two  feet,  the 
end  B  12  feet,  the  length  of  the  piece  20  yards: 
the  figures  in  the  middle  of  it  are  20  turnips,  sown 
early  and  well  hoed.  The  manner  of  this  hoeing 
must  be  at  first  near  the  plants,  with  a  spade,  and 
each  time  afterward  a  foot  distance,  till  the  eartli  be 
once  well  dug ;  and,  if  weeds  appear  where  it  has 
been  so  dug,  hoe  them  out  shallow  with  the  hand- 
hoe.  But  dig  all  the  piece  next  the  outlines  deep 
every  time,  that  it  may  be  the  finer  for  the  roots  to 
enter  when  they  are  permitted  to  come  thither.  If 
die  turnips  be  aill  bigger  as  they  stand  nearer  to  the 
end  B,  it  is  a  proof  that  they  all  extend  to  the  out- 
side of  the  piece,  and  the  turnip  20  will  appear  to 
4raw  .nourishment  from  six  feet  distance  from  its 
centre.  But  if  the  turnips  16,  17,  18,  19,  and  20  ac- 
quire no  greater  bulk  than  the  turnip  15,  it  will  be 
clear  that  their  roots  extend  no  farther  than  those  of 
the  turnip  15  does,  which  is  but  about  4  feet.  By  this 
method  the  extent  of  the  roots  of  any  plant  may  be 
discovered.  There  is  another  way  to  find  the  length 
of  roots,  by  making  a  long  narrow  trench  at  the  dis- 
tance you  expect  they  will  extend  to,  and  fill  it  with 
salt ;  if  the  plant  be  killed  by  the  salt,  it  is  certain 
that  some  of  its  roots  enter  it. 

"  What  put  me  upon  trj'^ing  this  method  was  an  ob- 
servation of  two  lands  or  ridges  (Fig.  No.  2),  drilled 
with  turnips  in  rows,  a  foot  asunder,  and  very  even 
in  them ;  the  ground  at  both  ends  and  on  one  side 
was  hard  and  unploughed.  The  turnips,  not  being 
hoed,  were  very  poor,  small,  and  yellow,  except  the 
three  outside  rows,.i,  c,  d,  which  stood  next  to  the 
land  (or  ridge)  E,  which  land,  being  ploughed  and 


PLANTS. 


171 


172  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

harrowed  at  the  time  the  land  A  ought  to  have  been 
hoed,  gave  a  dark,  flourishing  colour  to  these  three 
rows ;  and  the  turnips  in  the  row  rf,  which  stood 
farthest  off  from  the  new-ploughed  land  E,  received 
so  much  benefit  from  it  as  to  grow  twice  as  big  as 
any  of  the  more  distant  rows.  The  row  c,  being  a 
foot  nearer  to  the  new-ploughed  land,  became  twice 
as  large  as  those  in  d;  but  the  row  A,  which  was 
next  to  the  land  E,  grew  much  larger  yet.  F  is  a 
piece  of  hard,  whole  ground,  of  about  two  perches 
in  length,  and  about  two  or  three  feet  broad,  lying 
between  those  two  lands  which  had  not  been  plough- 
ed that  year.  It  was  remarkable,  that,  during  the 
length  of  this  interjacent  hard  ground,  the  rows  rf,  c,  b 
were  as  small  and  yellow  as  any  in  the  land.  The 
turnips  in  the  row  </,  about  three  feet  from  the  land 
E,  receiving  a  double  increase,  proves  that  they  had 
as  much  nourishment  from  the  land  E  as  from  the 
land  A,  wherein  they  stood,  which  nourishment  was 
brought  by  less  than  half  the  number  of  roots  of 
these  turnips.  In  their  own  land  they  must  have 
extended  a  yard  all  rounS,  else  they  could  not  have 
reached  the  land  E,  wherein  it  is  probable  that  these 
few  roots  went  more  than  another  yard,  to  give  each 
turnip  as  much  increase  as  all  the  roots  had  done  in 
their  own  land.  Except  that  it  will  hereafter  ap- 
pear that  the  new  nourishment  taken  at  the  extrem- 
ities of  the  roots  in  the  land  E  might  enable  the 
plants  to  send  out  more  roots  in  their  own  land,  and 
receive  something  more  from  thence.  The  row  c 
being  twice  as  big  as  the  row  d,  must  be  supposed 
to  extract  twice  as  far;  and  the  row  b  four  times  as 
far,  in  proportion  as  it  was  of  a  bulk  quadruple  to 
the  row  d." 

"  When  roots  are  in  a  tilled  state,"  says  TuU,  "  a 
great  pressure  is  made  against  them  by  the  earth, 
which  constantly  subsides,  and  presses  their  food 
closer  and  closer,  even  into  their  mouths,  until  itself 
becomes  so  hard  and  close  that  the  weak  s(»rts  of 


PLANTS.  173 

roots  can  penetrate  no  farther  into  it  unless  reopen- 
ed by  new  tillage." 

TuU's  work  was  published  a  hundred  years  ago. 
It  has  been  quoted  and  commented  upon  by  most 
of  the  subsequent  writers  upon  agriculture ;  and  the^ 
facts  above  stated  have  never  been  controverted  nor 
doubted,  either  by  these  writers,  nor,  so  far  as  we 
have  learned,  by  practical  farmers.  They  are.  there- 
fore, undisputed.  Why  is  it  that  cultivated  crops 
upon  the  margins  of  fields,  and  about  stumps  and 
fast  stones,  give  more  dwarfish  plants  and  less  pro- 
duct than  the  well-tilled  portions  of  the  field  ■?  It  is 
not  owing  to  the  poverty  of  the  soil ;  for  these  por- 
tions abound  most  in  the  elements  of  fertility,  by 
reason  of  the  plough,  on  being  raised  from  the  fur- 
row, depositing  there  the  finest  and  richest  mould. 
Why  do  meadows  deteriorate  1  Is  it  not  because 
the  roots  of  plants  have  not  a  sufficient  range  in 
mellow  earth  to  supply  the  requisite  food ;  and  be- 
cause the  unbroken  soil  "  becomes  so  hard  and  close, 
that  the  weak  sort  of  roots  can  penetrate  no  farther 
into  it]" 

There  are  some  practical  improvements  which  we 
would  draw  from  the  preceding  facts.     And, 

First :  In  regard  to  the  use  of  the  plough  in  Indian 
corn  and  other  hoed  crops.  The  roots  of  Indian 
corn  are  known,  from  repeated  observation,  to  ex- 
tend in  the  soil  at  least  six,  eight,  and  ten  feet ;  and, 
if  planted  in  squares  four  feet  apart,  each  hill  has 
virtually  a  pasture  of  four  feet  square  to  feed  upon. 
Now  if  the  plough  is  run  both  ways  through  the 
crop,  this  pasture  is  reduced  to  at  least  two  square 
feet,  for  the  roots  which  furnish  sustenance  are 
within  reach  of  the  plough,  and  must  be  cut  by  it. 
Hence  the  plough,  where  it  is  employed,  reduces 
the  pasture  of  each  hill  from  sixteen  to  four  square 
feet,  or  three  tourlhs, 

Secondly :  In  regard  to  the  application  of  manure, 
whether  it  should  be  applied  in  hills  and  drills,  or 


174  AMERICAN  HUSBANDRY. 

spread  broadcast.  The  roots  extend  simultaneously 
with  the  stems,  and  draw  sustenance  for  the  plant 
Uirough  their  extreme  points.  Hence,  by  the  time 
the  crop  is  first  dressed,  the  roots  have  extended  be- 
yond the  manure  depxjsited  in  the  hill,  and,  conse- 
quently, the  plant  derives  but  a  partial  benefit  from 
this  central  deposite  of  food.  If,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  manure  is  spread  broadcast,  the  roots,  as  they 
extend,  are  constantly  reaching  new  supplies,  and 
the  plant  is  sustained  in  undiminished  vigour. 

Thirdly :  In  regard  to  fallow  crops  instead  of  na 
ked  fallows.  Where  sward  ground  receives  but  one 
pi  ■tughing  (but  that  should  be  a  thorough  one),  the 
vegetable  matter  of  the  surface  is  turned  completely 
under,  safe  from  the  wasting  influences  of  the  weath- 
er. This  vegetable  matter  readily  decomposes,  fur- 
nishing a  permeable  stratum  for  the  roots,  the  food 
which  these  roots  seek  for,  and  moisture  to  convey 
it  to  the  plants.  As  the  roots  of  the  sod  decay,  the 
upper  stratum  becomes  permeable  to  heat  and  air, 
and  crumbles  into  a  fine  tilth.  In  the  case  of  naked 
fallows,  a  good  portion  of  the  vegetable  matter  is 
lost  by  being  turned  to  the  surface  at  the  second 
ploughing,  and  the  groimd  consequently  becomes 
more  compact,  and  is  not  so  readily  penetrated  by 
the  roots  of  the  crop,  nor  by  heat,  air,  and  moisture, 
the  essential  agents  of  vegetable  growth.     And, 

Fourthly:  The  facts  which  we  have  detailed  af- 
ford a  strong  argument  in  favour  of  the  alternating 
system  of  husbandry  wherever  it  can  be  introduced  ; 
of  periodically  breaking  and  pulverizing  the  soil  with 
tlie  plough,  harrow,  and  roller,  and  with  root-<Tops, 
thereby  rendering  it  more  congenial  to  the  growth 
of  grasses  and  small  grain. 


SWINE.  175 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


[The  following  report,  made  by  C.  N.  Bemknt, 
Esq.,  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  New- York  State 
Agricultural  Society,  will  be  found  to  embrace  much 
valuable  infonnation  on  the  several  breeds,  as  well 
as  the  treatment  of  this  animal.  In  scarcely  any 
instance  has  improvement  been  more  manifest  than 
in  the  case  of  swine  ;  and  it  must  be  admitted,  thai 
in  no  case  was  such  improvement  more  needed. 
For  farther  information  on  this  subject  we  refer  to 
the  Cultivator,  vol.  vii..  No.  1.] 

Until  recently,  very  little  attention  has  been  paid 
to  the  breeds  of  our  farm-stock;  and  pigs,  being 
considered  an  inferior  species  of  domestic  animals, 
have  been  the  last  to  engage  the  attention  of  the 
farmer :  even  at  the  present  day,  in  many  districts 
of  our  country,  the  old,  unprofitable  kinds  of  this 
animal  continue  to  prevail.  Indeed,  systematic 
breeding,  with  a  view  to  improve  the  form  and  value 
of  the  animal,  may  be  said  to  have  hardly  com- 
menced among  us,  the  improvements  which  are 
perceptible  being  rather  the  fruits  of  European  tliaii 
American  skill. 

A  common  error  in  this  country  has  been  to  re- 
gard more  the  size  of  the  animal  than  its  symmetry 
or  good  points  ;  to  estimate  a  breed  according  to  the 
great  weight  which  it  could  be  made  to  attain  rather 
than  the  profit  with  which  it  could  be  fitted  to  the 
hands  of  the  butcher — the  most  material  point  to  the 


176  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

farmer.  But  experience  is  teaching  us  a  new  lesson 
on  this  head.  Butchers  now  judge  of  an  animal,  not 
according  to  its  gross  weight,  but  according  to  its 
good  points,  or  the  value  of  the  meat  which  it  car- 
ries. Breeders  have  learned  to  prefer  those  which, 
with  a  given  quantity  of  food,  will  lay  on  the  most 
meat.  And  the  consumer  has  learned,  too,  that 
meat  that  shows  the  most  solid  fat  is  neither  the 
most  healthy,  the  most  savoury,  nor  the  most  eco- 
nomical. It  is  the  due  admixture  of  fat  and  lean,  or 
the  prevalence  of  what  is  termed  fat-lean  (such  as 
is  seen  in  the  Devonshire  ox  and  the  South  Down 
sheep)  that  gives  the  greatest  value  to  butcher's  meat. 

It  was  lately  remarked  by  an  eminent  breeder  in 
England,  Mr.  Gray,  at  an  agricultural  dinner,  that  he 
could  feed,  on  an  acre  of  land,  a  greater  number  of 
pounds  of  mutton,  in  carcasses  from  18  to  20  lbs. 
per  quarter,  than  in  carcasses  from  28  to  30  lbs.  per 
quarter ;  and  that  a  quarter  of  mutton  from  a  sheep 
of  18  to  20  lbs.  weight  per  quarter  is  worth  more  in 
proportion  than  from  a  sheep  of  30  lbs.  per  quarter ; 
and,  consequently,  that  the  advantage  is  on  the  side 
of  the  smaller  carcasses.  And  he  assigned  this 
among  other  reasons,  that,  in  case  of  drought  or 
scarcity,  a  small  animal  can  collect  as  much  food  as 
a  larger  one,  and,  having  a  smaller  carcass,  it  de- 
rives more  advantage  from  it ;  that,  while  the  larger 
is  losing  in  condition,  the  smaller  one,  if  not  impro- 
ving, is  remaining  stationary ;  and  when  the  period 
arrives  at  which  an  abundance  of  food  can  be  ob- 
tained, it  almost  immediately  recovers  itself,  and  is 
fit  to  go  to  market  sooner  than  the  larger  animal. 

These  remarks  are  found  to  hold  good  in  regard 
to  swine  as  well  as  sheep.  The  same  quantum  of 
food  that  will  give  COO  lbs.  to  hogs  of  a  very  large 
breed,  will  fatten  two  hogs  of  300  lbs.  each  ;  and  the 
meat  of  the  latter,  though  not  so  fat,  will  be  of  the 
better  quality.  This  and  other  considerations  have 
given  to  what  is  termed  the  Berkshires  a  decided 


SWINE.  177 

superiority,  both  in  Englapd  and  America,  over  most 
other  breeds. 

Ihe  history  of  the  introduction  of  this  breed 
among  us  was  stated  in  the  report  upon  swine  made 
at  the  last  meeting  of  this  society.  Since  that  time, 
the  demand  for  this  breed  of  pigs,  from  almost  every 
state  in  the  Union,  has  greatly  increased,  and  prices, 
in  some  cases,  have  almost '  exceeded  credulity. 
Two  hundred  and  fifty,  three  hundred,  and  even  five 
hundred  dollars  a  pair,  have  beeiT_paid  for  them. 
Nor  have  they  been  found  deficient  in  weight  when 
they  have  had  time  to  mature  their  growth.  They 
have  been  fattened  to  weigh  five,  six,  and  seven 
hundred  pounds  ;  and  one,  eighteen  months  old,  pur- 
chased of  Judge  Buel,  was  brought  to  this  market 
last  week  from  Fulton  county,  which  weighed,  when 
dressed,  633  lbs.,  the  carcass  of  which  sold  in  the 
market  at  about  $56. 

But  it  is  not  the  weight  which  this  breed  of  hogs 
may  be  brought  to  that  gives  them  their  great  in- 
trinsic value.  They  are  docile,  quiet,  come  to  early 
maturity,  have  but  little  off'al,  give  a  large  and  ex- 
cellent ham,  one  of  the  most  valuable  parts,  sweet, 
sound,  and  high-flavoured  pork,  and  make,  it  is  be- 
lieved, as  great,  if  not  greater  returns  for  the  food 
ponsumed,  than  any  other  breed  among  us. 

It  is  a  matter  of  congratulation  to  the  admirer  of 
this  breed  of  hogs,  that  Mr.  Lossing,,of  this  city,  has 
recently  imported  three  animals  of  this  breed,  care- 
fully selected  by  Mr.  Hawes  in  England.  This,  it 
is  hoped,  will  prevent  the  necessity  of  breeding  in- 
and-in,  and  thus  preserve  to  us  the  breed  in  its  pu- 
rity. 

In  corroboration  of  the  high  opinion  entertained 
of  this  breed  of  hogs,  I  will  state  that  Col.  Williams, 
a  spirited  and  wealthy  gentleman  residing  on  Long 
Island,  desirous  of  procuring  a  superior  breed  of 
hogs,  wrote  to  Iiis  friend  and  agent  at  Liverpool  to 
procure  for  him,  loilhout  regard  to  price,  six  pigs  of  the 


178  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

best  breed  in  England,  and  to  take  time  and  satisfy 
himsolf  before  purchasing.  After  diligent  inquiry, 
liis  friend  finally  settled  on  the  Berkshire,  as  being 
considered,  taking  all  things  into  view,  the  best  and 
most  approved  breed,  and  purchased  seven,  four 
males  and  three  females,  being  the  entire  litter  (the 
owner  refusing  to  sell  a  part),  and  forwarded  them 
to  New- York,  where  they  arrived  in  October  last. 
One  of  the  male  pigs  will  be  sent  to  the  chairman 
of  this  committee  in  the  spring,  which  will  gc*  still 
farther  to  keep  the  breed  from  degenerating. 

There  are  other  good  breeds  of  hogs  in  some  sec- 
tions of  the  country,  each  of  which  has  its  advocates 
and  admirers,  such  as  the  Bedford  or  Wobum, 
Mackey,  Leicesters,  Mocho,  China,  Byfield,  and 
Grass-breed,  as  they  are  termed. 

Much  loss  has  been  sustained  by  our  farmers  in 
not  keeping  up  the  purity  of  blood  when  possessed, 
the  importance  of  which  has  been  too  little  regard- 
ed; and,  before  they  were  aware  of  it,  the  good 
qualities  were  lost,  either  by  breeding  in-and-in,  or 
by  crossing  with  inferior  animals. 

As  it  regards  the  choice  of  hogs  for  breeding,  it  is 
recommended  that  the  male  should  be  small-headed, 
deep  and  broad  in  the  chest,  the  chine  rather  arched, 
the  ribs  and  barrel  well  rounded,  and  the  hams  fall- 
ing full  down  nearly  to  the  hock.  He  should  also 
be  more  compact  in  his  form,  and  rather  smaller 
than  the  female ;  for  if  she  be  coarse,  her  progeny 
will  be  improved  in  form  and  flesh  by  the  cross ;  and 
the  more  roomy  she  is,  the  better  chance  will  she 
afford  of  producing  a  large  and  healthy  litter.  Re- 
specting her  make,  no  other  obsen'ation  need  be 
made  than  to  choose  her  of  a  deep  and  capacious 
body,  with  a  good  appearance,  and  belonging  to  as 
perfect  a  raec  as  can  be  found. 

The  boar  should  be  well  fed,  and,  when  young, 
used  sparingly.  The  sow  should  also  be  kept  in 
good  condition,  so  as  to  support  her  offspring,  but 


SWINE.  179 

Bhould  not  be  made  too  fat:  for,  if  in  very  high  or- 
der, she  will  probably  bring  but  a  weak  and  indiffer- 
ent litter  of  pigs.  She  should  not  be  allowed  to  far- 
row in  the  winter,  as  the  young  are  then  extremely 
tender,  of  all  animals  the  least  able  to  endure  cold, 
and  thrive  with  great  difficulty.  March  and  the  first 
of  April  for  the  spring,  and  August  and  September 
for  the  fall  litters,  are  therefore  to  be  preferred  as 
the  best  seasons  for  farrowing. 

When  breeders  possess  a  good  kind  of  stock,  they 
are  too  apt  to  follow  it  up  by  breeding  what  is  term- 
ed "  in-and-in"  with  the  same  family ;  a  practice 
which,  it  is  well  known,  cannot  be  successfully  per- 
severed in  ;  for  the  animals  will  become  bad  feeders, 
grow  delicate,  fall  off  in  size,  and  almost  entirely 
give  up  breeding ;  and,  should  they  casually  have  a 
litter,  the  pigs  will  be  small  and  weak,  and  die  al- 
most as  soon  as  they  are  born. 

It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  a  young  sow  will 
devour  her  young :  she  should,  therefore,  be  care- 
fully watched,  and  well  fed  when  about  to  farrow, 
which  may  be  known  by  her  carrying  straw  in  her 
mouth  to  form  her  bed.  It  is  a  good  precaution  to 
sponge  the  backs  of  the  pigs  immediately  after  they 
are  born  with  a  strong  infusion  of  aloes  in  lukewarm 
water,  as  its  bitter  taste  will. prevent  her  from  de- 
stroying them :  care  should  also  be  taken,  before 
farrowing,  to  separate  her  from  other  hogs.  She 
should  have  a  dry  and  warm  place,  and  be  provided 
with  a  good  supply  of  straw  cut  short,  to  prevent 
the  pigs  from  getting  entangled,  in  which  case  she 
is  apt  to  lay  upon  and  kill  them.  To  protect  the 
pigs,  an  open  frame  or  strong  rail  on  each  side  of 
her,  elevated  a  few  inches  from  the  ground,  under 
which  the  pigs  may  run,  has  been  recommended. 
Eight  or  ten  days  after  farrowing,  the  sow  may  be 
allowed  to  leave  her  sty  for  a  short  time  every 
day,  and  when  the  pigs  acquire  a  little  strength  they 
may  accompany  her.     A  grass-field  is  the  best  place, 


ISO  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

for  the  herbage  improves  the  sow's  milk ;  the  pigs 
also  grow  faster  as  well  as  more  healthy,  and  tlie 
sty  is  rendered  more  cleanly  by  their  absence.  If 
the  brood  be  numerous,  they  should  be  lessened,  in 
order  to  relieve  the  sow,  to  eight,  or,  at  most,  nine; 
though  from  ten  to  thirteen  have  been  brought,  up 
in  perfect  order,  without  any  apparent  injury  to  the 
mother.  In  such  cases,  however,  she  should  be  a 
strong  and  healthy  animal,  as  well  as  supplied  with 
an  abundance  of  the  most  nutritious  food.  During 
the  whole  period  of  her  nursing,  the  offals  of  the 
kitchen  or  dairy-wash,  with  shipstufTs,  ground  oats, 
barley,  buckwheat,  or  com,  mixed  and  given  luke- 
warm morning  and  evening,  and  in  the  middle  of 
the  day,  boiled  potatoes,  beets,  or  carrots,  with  a 
little  Indian  meal,  or  pease  and  barley  ground  and 
mixed,  or  something  equally  nutritious,  may  be  fed 
to  her. 

The  young  pigs,  even  while  sucklers,  should  not 
be  left  wholly  to  the  nourishment  offered  by  the 
sow,  but  should  be  furnished,  two  or  three  times  a 
day,  with  skim-milk,  or  buttermilk-whey,  or  pot 
liquor,  made  lukewarm,  and  having  a  httle  meal, 
shorts,  and  boiled  roots  mixed  up  with  it ;  or,  if  this 
be  thought  too  troublesome,  skim-milk,  with  a  small 
quantity  of  meal,  may  be  left  constantly  for  them 
in  a  part  of  the  sty  to  which  the  sow  cannot  have 
access.  In  six  or  seven  weeks  they  will  generaUy 
weigh  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  pounds,  and  be 
strong  enough  to  wean.  After  weaning,  thc-y  should 
not  only  be  kept  dry  and  clean,  but  regularly  fed. 

The  importance  of  swine,  to  consume  the  refuse 
or  coarse  grain  of  the  farm,  and  for  the  production 
of  manure,  is  too  well  known  to  the  farmer  to  require 
farther  notice. 

Pigs  that  come  in  March  and  are  intended  to  be 
killt'd  in  December,  should  be  well  fed  with  the  wash 
of  the  kitchen  and  dairy  from  the  time  of  weaning, 
should  have  a  run  in  good  clover  where  there  is 
plenty  oi  water,  and.  as  soon  as  pease  wiU  answer,  8 


SWINE.  181 

sraaH'quantity  of  these  should  be  added  to  their  food 
daily,  to  be  increased  as  they  increase  in  size  :  feed- 
ing and  fattening  hogs  exclusively  on  corn,  at  the 
present  high  prices,  it  is  evident,  would  be  a  losing 
and  ruinous  concern.  It  is  therefore  recommended, 
that,  as  soon  as  the  harvpstiiig  of  potatoes  com- 
mences, the  hogs  should  Lc;  confined  and  fed  with 
boiled  or  steamed  potatoes,  with  a  few  pumpkins, 
beets,  or  carrots :  pease  also,  and  oats  and  buck- 
wheat ground  together,  should  be  well  mixed  when 
hot,  and  fed  lukewarm  regularly  three  times  per  day. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  cloy  their  appe- 
tites by  giving  them  more  than  they  will  eat  at  each 
time ;  and,  as  they  advance,  it  is  recommended  to 
feed  them  a  little  at  a  time  several  times  in  the  day. 
To  keep  them  easy  and  quiet,  much  depends  on  reg- 
ularity ;  for  they  are  much  better  observers  of  time 
than  many  are  aware  of. 

To  harden  and  give  solidity  to  their  flesh,  about 
two  or  three  weeks  previous  to  their  being  killed 
they  should  be  plentifully  fed  with  c6rn  and  pure 
water ;  but  it  would  be  more  economical  to  have  the 
corn  reduced  to  meal,  and,  if  convenient,  made  into 
mush  or  pudding,  adding  a  little  salt  by  way  of  relish. 
A  little  fine  charcoal  thrown  into  their  pens  occa- 
sionally, and  a  small  quantity  of  sulphur  mixed  with 
the  food,  will  add  much  to  their  health. 

It  has  been  ascertained  that  one  bushel  of  grain, 
ground  and  cooked,  will  go  nearly  as  far  as  two  in 
its  whole  state  ;  and  these  remarks  will  apply  equal- 
ly well  to  grown  hogs. 

March  pigs,  well  fattened,  weighing  from  200  to 
250  pounds,  and  killed  in  December,  will  command 
in  this  market  the  highest  price  ;  but  for  consump- 
tion on  the  farm,  an  older  and  larger  hog  is  recom- 
mended, say  from  300  to  400  pounds. 

Hogs  treated  as  above,  if  of  a  good  breed,  will  re- 
quire from  six  to  eight  weeks  to  fatten  them  suflfil- 
ciently  for  slaughtering. 


182  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

81IEE.P  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT. 

Native  Sheep. — Spanish  Merino. — Saxon  Merino. — New  Lei- 
cester or  Bakewell  Breed.— South  Down. — The  Influence  or 
Efifect  of  Feed  on  the  Quantity  and  Quality  of  the  Wool  and 
Carcass. 

[The  first  part  of  this  chapter  consists  of  a  report, 
made  by  Col.  H.  S.  Randall,  of  Cortland  county,  to 
the  State  Agricultural  Society,  and  presents  the 
best  history  of  the  several  breeds  of  sheep,  and  their 
introduction  into  this  country,  that  has  yet  been  pre- 
sented to  the  American  public.  The  raising  of 
sheep  and  the  growing  of  wool  have  become  one  of 
our  greatest  agricultural  interests,  and  deserves  a 
proportionate  share  of  public  attention.  To  those 
engaged  in  these  pursuits,  this  paper  will  be  most 
acceptable.  The  second  part  of  this  chapter  is  a 
similar  report,  made  to  the  same  society,  on  the  man- 
agement of  sheep,  by  Francis  Rotch,  Esq.,  of  Ot- 
sego county,  the  present  able  and  respected  pres- 
ident of  the  State  Agricultural  Society,  whose  expe- 
rience in  the  ihanagement  of  cattle  and  sheep,  and 
Judgment  of  their  respective  qualities,  is  probably 
not  exceeded  by  that  of  any  other  individual  in  this 
country.  The  course  pointed  out  in  the  report  is 
T>lain,  and  the  advantages  resulting  from  following  it 
are  great  and  certain.] 


SHEEP   AND   THEIR    MANAGEMENT.        183 


NATIVE    SHEEP. 

Although  this  name  is  popularly  appUcd  to  the 
common  coarse-wooled  sheep  of  the  country,  which 
existed  here  previously  to  the  importation  of  the 
improved  breeds,  there  is,  properly  speaking,  no  race 
of  sheep  "  native"  to  North  America.  Mr.  Living- 
ston, in  speaking  of  a  race  as  "  indigenous,"  only 
quoted  the  language  of  another,*  and  his  informant 
was  either  mistaken  -as  to  the  fact,  or  misapprehend- 
ed the  term.  The  only  animal  of  the  genus  Ovis 
originally  inhabiting  this  country  is  the  argali,f 
known  to  our  enterprising  travellers  and  traders 
who  have  penetrated  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where 
the  animal  is  found,  as  the  Big  Horn.  Though  the 
pelage  of  the  argali  approximates  but  little  to  the. 
wool  of  the  domestic  sheep,  they  are,  as  is  well 
known,  considered  by  naturalists  to  have  belonged 
originally  to  the  same  species ;  and  the  changes 
which  have  taken  place  in  the  form,  covering,  and 
habits  of  the  latter,  are  attributed  to  their  domesti- 
cation, and  the  care  and  skill  of  man  during  a  long 
succession  of  years. 

The  common  sheep  of  the  United  States  were  of 
foreign,  and  mostly  of  English  origin.  The  writer 
of  the  volume  on  sheep  in  the  "  Farmer's  Series" 
[Mr.  Youalt]  speaks  of  them  as,  "  although  some- 
what differing  in  various  districts,  consisting  chiefly 
of  a  coarse  kind  of  Leicester,  originally  of  British 
breed."!  Others  have  seen,  or  fancied  they  saw,  in 
some-  of  them,  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  South 
Downs.  Mr.  Livingston  was  of  this  number.^  But 
it  is  far  more  probable  that  they  can  claim  a  common 
descent  from  no  one  stock.  Our  ancestors  emigrated 
from  different  sections  of  the  British  dominions,  and 
some  portion  of  them  from  other  parts  of  Europe. 

*  Livingston's  Essay  on  Sheep,  p.  56,  60. 

t  Godman's  American  Natural  History. 

i  Vol.  on  Sheep,  p.  134.  ^  Essay  on  Sheep,  p.  51 


184  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

They  brought  their  implements  of  husbandr)',  and 
their  domestic  animals  to  fertilize  the  wilderness. 
Each,  it  would  be  natural  to  suppose,  made  choice 
of  the  favourite  breed  of  his  own  immediate  district, 
to  transport  to  the  New  World,  and  the  admixture 
of  these  various  races  formed  the  mongrel  famil}' 
now  under  consideration.  Amid  the  perils  of  war 
and  the  incursions  of  beasts  of  prey,  they  were  pre- 
served with  sedulous  care.  As  early  as  167G,  Mr. 
Edward  Randolph,  in  a  "  Narrative  of  the  Lords  of 
the  Privy  Seal,"  speaks  of  New-England  as  "  abound- 
ing with  sheep."* 

The  common  sheep  yielded  a  wool  only  suited  to 
the  coarsest  fabrics,  averaging  in  the  hands  of  good 
farmers  from  three  to  three  and  a  half  pounds  of 
wool  to  the  fleece.  They  were  slow  in  arriving  at 
maturity  compared  with  the  improved  English 
breeds,  and  yielded,  when  fully  grown,  from  10  to 
12  pounds  of  a  middling  quality  of  mutton  to  the 
quarter.  They  were  usually  long  legged,  light  in 
the  fore-quarter,  and  narrow  on  the  breast  and  back, 
although  some  rare  instances  might  be  found  of 
flocks  with  short  legs,  and  some  approximation  to 
the  general  form  of  the  improved  breeds.  The  com- 
mon sheep  were  excellent  breeders,  often  rearing, 
almost  entirely  destitute  of  care,  and  without  shel- 
ter, one  hundred  per  cent,  of  lambs,  and  in  small 
flocks  a  still  larger  proportion.  These,  too,  were 
usually  dropped  in  March  or  the  eariier  part  of 
April.  Restless  in  their  disposition,  their  impatience 
of  restraint  almost  equalled  that  of  the  untamed  ar- 
gali ;  and  in  many  sections  of  our  country  it  was 
common  to  see  from  20  to  50  of  them  roving,  with 
little  regard  to  enclosures,  over  the  possessions  of 
their  owner  and  his  neighbours,  leaving  a  large  por- 
tion of  their  wool  adhering  to  bushes  and  thorns, 
and  the  t-emainder  placed  nearly  beyond  the  possi- 

*  Colonial  Papers  of  Massachusetu. 


SHEEP  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.    185 

bility  of  carding  by  the  "  Tory  bur"  so  common  on 
new  lands. 

The  old  common  stoSk  of  sheep,  as  a  distinct 
family,  have  nearly  disappeared,  having  been  univer- 
sally crossed,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  with  the 
foreign  breeds  of  later  introduction.  The  first  and 
second  cross  with  the  Merino  resulted  in  a  decided 
improvement,  and  produced  a  variety  exceedingly 
valuable  for  the  farmer,  who  rears  wool  only  for  do- 
mestic purposes.  The  fleeces  are  of  uneven  fine- 
ness, being  hairy  on  the  thighs,  dewlap,  &c. ;  but 
the  general  quality  is  much  improved ;  the  quantity 
is  considerably  augmented  ;  the  body  is  more  com- 
pact and  nearer  the  ground  ;  and  they  have  lost  their 
unquiet  and  roving  propensities.  The  cross  with 
the  Saxon,  for  reasons  wh"ch  we  shall  hereafter  al- 
lude to,  has  not  been  generally  so  successful.  With 
the  Leicester  and  Downs,  the  improvement,  so  far 
as  form,  size,  and  a  propensity  to  take  on  fat  are 
concerned,  is  manifest. 

SPANISH   MEEINO. 

The  history  of  this  celebrated  race  of  sheep,  so  far 
as  it  is  known,  has  so  often  been  brought  before  the 
public,  that  it  is  deemed  unnecessary  here  to  re- 
capitulate it.  The  first  importation  of  them  into  the 
United  States  took  place  in  1801.  Four  rams  were 
shipped  by  Mr.  Delessert,  a  banker  of  Paris,  three 
of  which  perished  on  the  passage.*  The  fourth  ar- 
rived in  safetjfcat  Rosendale,  a  farm  owned  by  that 
gentleman  near  Kingston,  in  this  state.  In  1802, 
two  pairs  were  sent  from  France  by  Mr.  Livingston, 
the  American  minister,  to  his  estate  on  the  Hudson ; 
and  later  the  same  year,  Mr.  Humphreys,  our  minis- 
ter to  Spain,  on  his  departure  from  that  country, 
shipped  one  hundred  for  the  United  States.  But 
they  attracted  little  notice  until  our  difficulties  with 

•  "  Archives  of  Useful  Knowledge." — Cultivator,  vol.  i.,  p.  183. 
I.— P 


186  AMERICAN    HU8BANDRT. 

England  led  to  a  cessation  of  commercial  inter« 
course  with  that  power  in,1808  and  1809.  The  at- 
tention of  the  country  being  now  directed  towards 
manufacturing  and  wool  growing,  the  Merino  rose 
into  importance.  So  great,  indeed,  was  the  interest 
excited,  that  from  a  thousand  to  fourteen  hundred 
dollars  a  head  was  paid  for  them.  Other  and  nu- 
merous importations  soon  followed ;  and,  unfortu- 
nately, some  of  the  cargoes  arrived  in  the  worst  con- 
dition, bringing  with  them  those  scourges  of  the 
ovine  race,  the  scab  and  foot-rot.  These  evils  and 
the  increased  supply  soon  brought  them  down  to 
less  than  a  twentieth  part  of  their  former  price,  so 
that  they  could  be  bought  for  $20  a  head.  When, 
however,  it  was  established,  by  actual  experiment, 
that  their  wool  did  not  deteriorate  in  this  country,  as 
had  been  feared  by  many,  and  that  they  became 
readily  acclimated,  they  again  rose  into  favour.  But 
the  prostration  of  our  manufactories,  which  soon 
after  ensued,  rendered  the  Merino  again  compara- 
tively of  little  value,  and  brought  ruin  on  numbers 
who  had  purchased  them  at  their  previous  high 
prices.  The  rise  which  has  since  taken  place  in  the 
value  of  fine  wool,  as  well  as  the  causes  which  led 
to  it,  are  too  recent  and  well  understood  to  require 
particular  notice.  With  the  rise  of  wool,  the  valu- 
ation of  the  sheep  which  bear  it  has  of  course  kept 
pace. 

The  Merino  has  been  variously  described.  This 
arises  from  the  fact  that  it  is  the  giperal  appella- 
tion of  a  species,  comprising  several  varieties,  pre- 
senting essential  points  of  difference  in  size,  form, 
and  in  quality  and  quantity  of  wool.  The  Escurial 
flocks  stand  first  in  p)oint  of  fineness.  Attached  to 
the  convent  El  Escorial,  within  a.  short  distance  of 
the  capital,  and  being  the  private  property  of  the 
kings  of  Spain,  no  pains  or  care  have  been  spared 
upon  these  beautiful  flocks.  They  are  of  a  good 
size  and  fine  form,  "combining  excellence,"  as  is 


SHEEP    AND    THEIR    MANAGEMENT.         187 

remarked  by  an  intelligent  writer,*  "  scarcely  admit- 
ting of  improvement."  It  is  supposed  that  most  of 
the  Escurial  sheep  which  found  their  way  into  this 
coufitry  are  but  indifferent  specimens  of  this  cele- 
brated variety  of  the  Merino.  Their  fleeces  are 
somewhat  lighter  than  those  of  the  Paulars,  Negret- 
tis,  &c.,  and  altogether  they  bear  a  close  resemblance 
to  tlie  genuine  Saxons,  of  which  they  are  the  parent 
stock. 

According  to  Mr.  Lasteyrie,t  the  Negretti  "  are 
the  largest  and  strongest  of  all  the  Spanish  travelling 
sheep."  The  Guadaloupe  "have  the  most  perfect 
form,  and  are  likewise  celebrated  for  the  quantity 
and  quality  of  their  wool."  The  Paulars  "  bear  much 
wool  of  a  fine  quality ;  but  they  have  a  more  evident 
enlargement  behind  the  ears,  and  a  greater  degree 
of  throatiness." 

As  the  last  named  was  one  of  the  principal  varie- 
ties introduced  into  the  United  States,  a  more  par- 
ticular description  of  it  may  not  be  unacceptable. 
The  sheep  of  the  Paular  Convent  are  large,  with 
heavy,  but,  compared  with  the  Escurial  or  Saxons, 
coarse  fleeces.  The  wool  of  the  pure  bloods  con- 
tains a  considerable  quantity  of  jarr  or  hair,  and  it 
abounds  in  yolk  to  such  a  degree,  that  it  catches  and 
retains  at  its  extremities  much  floating  dust,  the  pol- 
len of  hay,  (fee.  This  gives  it  a  peculiarly  stiff  and 
hard  feeling  externally.  It  however  forms  an  ex- 
cellent protection  against  storms  and  cold.  The 
form  of  the  Paular  is  generally  good  ;  but  an  unusu- 
ally large  dewlap,  so  plaited  and  doubled  as  to  go  by 
the  popular  appellation  of  "  the  rufile,"  extends  from 
the  lower  jaw  to  the  brisket,  presenting  a  great  ob- 
stacle to  the  shearer,  and  an  unseemly  and  ungrace- 
ful appendage  in  the  eye  of  the  refined  breeder. 
On  the  sides  of  the  neck,  and  not  unfrequently  the 

*  Cuitivalor,  vol.  ii.,  p.  150. 

t  "  Farmer's  Series,"  vol.  on  Sheep,  p.  156.  We  quote  Mr. 
Youatt. 


188  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

face,  the  skin  also  lies  in  loose  wrinkles.  The  head 
is  coarse,  and,  in  the  male,  usually  surinounted  by 
large  horns.  The  skill  of  the  American  breeder  has 
obviated  some  of  these  defects,  and  there  are  a  iew 
(very  few)  flocks  claiming  purity  of  blood,  .which 
have  little  or  no  jarr,  and  an  almost  entire  absence 
of  the  throatiness  peculiar  to  this  variety.  Proba- 
bly, however,  in  most  of  such  instances,  they  owe  it 
to  a  cross  with  the  Saxons. 

There  are  some  other  varieties  of  the  Merino 
which  we  shall  not  pause  to  describe.  Taken  col- 
lectively, the  Spanish  rams,  according  to  Chancellor 
Livingston,  yield  about  eight  and  a  half  pounds  of 
wool,  and  the  ewes  five,  which  loses  half  in  washing ; 
making  four  pounds  and  a  quarter  the  average  weight 
of  fleece  of  the  rams,  and  two  and  a  half  the  average 
of  the  ewes.*  Some  varieties  considerably  exceed 
this  estimate,  and  probably  it  would  fall  short  if  ap- 
plied to  the  prime  sheep  of  any  variety.  In  the  cel- 
ebrated flock  of  French  Merinos  at  Rambouillet,  the 
average  weight,  exclusive  of  tag  and  belly  wool,  is 
six  pounds  to  the  fleece.  It  should  be  stated,  how- 
ever, that  both  Mr.  Livingston  and  Mr.  Humphreys 
assert,  that  the  Rambouillet  sheep  carry  more  wool 
than  any  of  the  Spanish  flocks. f  Col.  Humphreys, 
in  "a  letter  to  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Massachu- 
setts, even  goes  so  far  as  to  say  "  that  the  improved 
stock  of  France  yield  twice  as  much  wool  as  those 
of  Spain."  Some  carefully  selected  small  flocks  in 
this  country,  which  were  "salved"!  after  the  pre- 
ceding shearing,  have  averaged,  including  the  ordi- 
naiy  number  of  rams,  four  and  a  half  pounds  of  wool 
to  the  head.  The  gummy,  thick  wool  of  the  Merino 
can  be  but  imperfectly  cleansed  on  the  back  of  the 
animal,  where  it  is  the  universal  custom  in  the  Uni- 

•  Essay  on  ."^hepp,  p.  39. 
t  Livtiigston's  KssHy,  p.  71,  and  note. 

i  Rubbed  over  with  a  8»lve  consisting  of  oil,  wax,  &c., 
which  adds  to  the  weight  of  fleece. 


SHEEP   AND   THEIR    MANAGEMENT,         189 

ted  States  to  wash  it ;  and  probably  four  pounds  of 
clean  wool  would  be  as  high  as  the  maximum  aver- 
age in  the  choicest  flocks.  Few  overgo  three  and  a 
half. 

The  Merino,  though  the  native  of  a  warm  climate, 
becomes  readily  inured  to  the  greatest  extremes  of 
cold,  flourishing  as  far  north  as  Sweden,  without  de- 
generating in  fleece  or  form.*  It  is  a  patient,  docile 
animal,  bearing  much  confinement  without  injury  to 
health,  and  we  never  have  been  enabled  to  discover 
in  it  that  peculiar  "voraciousness  of  appetite"  as- 
cribed to  it  by  English  writers. f  Accurately  con- 
ducted experiments  have  shown  that  it  consumes 
two  pounds  of  hay  per  diem  in  winter ;  the  Leices- 
ter consumes  from  three  and  a  half  to  four ;  and  the 
common  wooled  American  sheep  would  not  probably 
fall  short  of  three.  The  mutton  of  the  Merino,  in 
spite  of  the  prejudice  which  exists  on  the  subject,  is 
short-grained  anA  of  good  flavour  when  killed  at  a 
proper  age,  and  weighs  from  eight  to  ten  pounds  to 
the  quarter.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  longevity,  re- 
taining its  teeth  and  continuing  to  breed  two  or  three 
years  longer  than  the  common  sheep  or  the  im- 
proved EngHsh  breeds  ;  but  it  should  be  remarked  in 
connexion  with  this  fact,  that  it  is  correspondingly 
slow  in  arriving  at  maturity.  It  does  not  attain  its 
full  growth  before  three  years,  and  the  ewes  in  the 
best-managed  flocks  are  rarely  permitted  to  breed 
before  they  reach  that  age.  The  Merino  is  not  a 
good  breeder,  the  bearing  ewes  giving  little  milk,  and 
sometimes  neglecting  their  lambs.  Eighty  per  cent, 
would  probably  be  as  high  as  the  average  number  of 
lambs  usually  reare  1. 

We  have  already  adverted  to  the  cross  between 
the  Merino  and  the  native  sheep.  On  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Saxon  family  of  the  Merinos,  they  were 
miiversaUy  ingrafted  on  the  parent  stock,  and  the 

*  Lasteyrie.  t  "  Farmer's  Series,"  Sheep,  p.  1 19. 


190  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

cross  was  continued  luitil  the  Spanish  blood  was 
nearly  bred  out.  When  the  admixture  took  place 
with  pure-blooded  and  prime  Saxons,  it  resulted 
most  favourably.  A  variety  was  produced  superior 
to  the  Merino  in  form,  carrying  less  wool,  but  this 
more  than  compensated  by  its  fineness.  The  ex- 
cessive throatiness  of  the  Paulars  disappeared  or 
jvas  greatly  diminished.  But,  unfortunately,  these 
instances  of  judicious  crossing  were  rare.  Our 
country  was  flooded  by  eager  speculators  with  the 
grade  sheep  and  refuse  Merinos  of  Germany.  Fine- 
ness of  wool  during  the  period  of  this  strange  excite- 
ment was  made  the  only  test  of  excellence,  no  mat- 
ter how  scanty  its  quantity,  no  matter  how  diminu- 
tive or  miserable  the  carcass.  Governed  by  such 
views,  the  holders  of  most  of  our  Merino  flocks  pur- 
chased these  pseudo-Saxons,  and  the  consequence 
was,  as  might  have  been  foreseen — their  flocks  were 
ruined.  ^ 

SAXON  MERINO. 

In  the  year  1765,  Augustus  Frederic,  elector  of 
Saxony,  obtained  permission  from  the  Spanish  court 
to  import  200  Merinos,  selected  from  the  choicest 
flocks  of  Spain.  They  were  chosen  principally  from 
the  Escurial  flock,  and  on  their  arrival  in  Saxony 
were  placed  on  a  private  estate  belonging  to  the 
elector,  under  the  care  of  Spanish  shepherds.  So 
much  importance  was  attached  to  the  experiment, 
as  it  was  then  considered,  that  a  commission  was 
appointed  to  superintend  the  affairs  of  the  estabhsh- 
ment ;  and  it  was  made  its  duly  to  difl"use  informa- 
tion in  relation  to  the  management  of  the  new  breed ; 
to  dispose  of  the  surplus  rams  at  prices  which  would 
place  them  within  the  reach  of  all  holders  of  sheep  ; 
and,  finally,  by  explaining  the  superior  value  of  the 
Merinos,  to  induce  the  Saxon  farmers  to  cross  thera 
with  their  native  breeds.  Popular  prejudice,  how- 
ever, was  strong  against  them,  and  thi'N  was  height- 


SHEEP  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.    191 

ened  by  the  ravages  of  the  scab,  which  had  been  in- 
troduced with  them  from  Spain,  and  which  proved 
vp.ry  destructive  before  it  was  finally  eradicated. 
But  when  it  became  apparent  that  the  Merino,  so 
far  from  degenerating,  had  improved  in  Saxony,  and 
that  the  Saxon  wool  exceeded  the  Spanish  in  fine- 
ness and  value,  the  wise  and  patriotic  etforts  of  the 
elector  began  to  reap  their  merited  success,  and  a 
revolution  took,  place  in  popular  sentiment.  The 
call  for  rams  became  so  great,  that  the  government 
resolved  on  a  new  importation,  to  enable  them  more 
effectually  to  meet  it,  and  to  improve  still  farther 
the  stock  already  obtained.  For  this  purpose  an  in- 
dividual, considered  one  of  the  best  judges  of  sheep 
in  Saxony,  was  despatched  to  Spain  in  1777,  with 
orders  to  select  300.  For  some  reason,  probably 
because  he  experienced  difficulty  in  obtaining  a 
greater  number  presenting  all  the  qualifications  he 
sougiit,  he  returned  with  but  1 10.  They  were  from 
nearly  all  the  diflferent  flocks  of  Spain,  but  principal- 
ly the  Escurial,  and  were  considered  decidedly  su- 
perior to  the  first  importation.  In  addition  to  the 
establishment  at  Stolpen  already  founded,  others 
were  now  commenced  at  Rennersdorf,  Lohmen,  &c. ; 
schools  were  established  for  the  education  of  shep- 
herds ;  publications  were  distributed  by  the  com- 
missioners to  throw  information  on  the  subject  be- 
fore the  people ;  and  the  crown  tenants,  it  is  said, 
were  each  required  to  purchase  a  certain  number  of 
the  sheep.  When  we  take  into  consideration  the 
unwearied  pains  bestowed  on  this  favourite  object 
by  the  Saxon  government;  the  fact  that  the  Saxon  va- 
riety are  descended  only  from  the  choicest  sheep  of 
Spain,  and  that  a  degree  of  care  and  attention  are 
bestowed  on  their  breeding  in  the  former  country 
entirely  unknown  in  the  latter,  it  is  not  a  subject 
of  surprise  that  the  emigrant  Merino  in  Saxony  ex- 
cels the  parent  stock  in  the  quality  of  his  fleece  and 
that  roimdness  of  form  and  fineness  of  bone  which 


192  AMBRICVN    HUSBANDRY. 

indicate  better  feeding  properties.  I'he  Spanish 
shepherd  is  little  changed  from  what  he  was  in  the 
days  of  Cardinal  Xinienes  or  Pedro  IV. :  with  much 
practical  knowledge  of  his  busiivcss.  but  never  dream- 
ing of  improvement ;  aiid  his  knowledge  strangely 
blended  with  prejudices  as  ancient  as  the  pedigrees 
of  his  sheep,  running  back  to  a  period  when  Spain 
was  a  Roman  province.  He  is  not  the  owner  of  the 
sheep  under  his  care,  but  tlie  ill-paid  servant  of  a  titled 
fiimily  or  a  religious  order,  who,  in  nine  cases  out 
of  ten,  are  no  more  disposed  or  more  competent  to 
carry  out  a  system  for  the  improvement  of  their 
flocks  than  himself.  And,  finally,  the  Spanish  cus- 
tom of  pasturing  their  sheep  during  the  entire  sea- 
son in  large  docks,  without  enclosures,*  to  render 
the  necessary  divisions  practicable,  entirely  prevents 
that  nice  adaptation  to  each  other  of  the  male  and 
female  selected  for  breeding  ;  that  counterbalancing 
of  the  defects  of  one  parent  by  the  marked  excel- 
lence of  the  other  in  the  same  points,  which  exhib- 
its the  skill  of  the  modern  breeder.  In  Saxony,  and 
the  other  states  of  Germany,  the  case  is  f^r  other- 
wise. The  electoral  flocks,  the  parent  stem,  are  un- 
der the  direction  of  commissioners  appointed  for 
their  intelligence  and  their  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject ;  and  the  noted  private  flocks  employ  the  first 
agricultural  skill  of  the  Saxon  landholders.  The 
low  price  of  labour,  too,  admits  of  a  degree  of  atten- 
tion and  constant  care  over  their  flocks  unknown 
in  other  countries.  The  attention  bestowed  upon 
breeding  may  be  inferred  fronv  the  fact,  that  in  many 
of  the  largest  flocks,  every  individual  sheep  is  num- 
bered and  registered,  its  pedigree  known,  and  its  off- 
spring recorded.    The  number  and  age  of  the  sheep 

*  Neither  are  there  enrlosiires  in  Saxony ;  hut  the  division  is 
nflected  by  the  bucks  hemg  placed  in  |>en>,  and  the  ewes  clasei- 
iied  and  inarke<i.  The  ewes  are  from  time  to  lirnr  driven  in  the 
faid  around  the  pens,  and  wlien  the  teaser  has  selected  one,  it 
M  placed  lu  the  pen  of  the  buck  for  which  it  is  marked. 


SHEEP    AND    TIIEIU    MANAGEMENT.        193 

IS  expressed  by  an  ingenious  method  of  marking  on 
the  ear,  invented  by  Mr.  Tliaer,  which  causes  little 
mutilation,  and  effectually  distinguishes  any  number 
of  sheep.  "  When  lambs  are  weaned,"  says  Mr. 
Charles  Howard,  in  a  letter  to  the  author  of  the  vol- 
ume on  sheep  in  the  "  Farmer's  Series,"  "  each  is 
placed  upon  a  table,  that  his  wool  and  form  may  be 
minutely  observed.  The  finest  are  selected  for 
breeding,  and  receive  a.  first  mark.  When  they  are 
one  year  old,  and  prior  to  shearing  them,  another 
close  examination  of  those  previously  marked  takes 
place :  those  in  which  no  defect  can  be  found  re- 
ceive a  second  mark,  and  the  rest  are  condemned. 
A  few  months  afterward,  a  third  and  last  scrutiny  is 
made ;  the  prime  rams  and  ewes  receive  a  third  and 
final  mark  ;  but  the  slightest  blemish  is  sufficient  to 
cause  the  rejection  of  the  animal." 

Considerable  attention  has  also  been  bestowed  in 
Germany  on  the  breeding. of  grade  sheep — a  cross 
between  the  Merino  and  the  native  sheep  of  the 
country.  These  native  sheep  were  of  two  varieties, 
and  they  bore  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  old  com- 
mon stock  of  the  United  States  ;  those  which  were 
fed  on  the  uplands  being  smaller  and  of  finer  fleece, 
and  the  lowland  sheep  carrying  more  flesh  and'coar- 
ser  wool.  The  sheepholders  who  were  unable  to 
purchase  pure  bloods  resorted  to  this  cross.  The 
wool  of  some  of  these  flocks,  after  a  few  genera- 
tions, has  rivalled  even  the  electoral  in  fineness ; 
but  it  loses  in  quantity,  as  the  native  German  car- 
ried much  lighter  fleeces  than  the  Spanish  sheep. 
The  sheep  themselves  are  also  much  less  perfect  in 
form,  the  means  of  the  common  breeder  not  permit- 
ting him  (and,  indeed,  there  being  no  prospect  for  an 
adequate  return)  to  bestow  the  same  labour  that  the 
breeder  of  pure  bloods  does,  to  sacrifice  for  the  least 
defect,  and,  in  short,  incur  the  same  expenses,  when, 
at  best,  his  sheep  will  not  sell  for  more  than  one 
eighth  or  one  tenth  of  the  price  of  pure  bloods. 


194  AMEUICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

In  1834,  the  best  Spanish  wool  solJ  in  the  English 
markets  at  from  2s.  6d.  (60cts.)  to  4s.  (96cts.) ;  the 
Saxon  at  the  same  time  commanded  from  4s.  Gd, 
($1  08)  to  5s.  3d.  ($1  26)  per  pound.*  In  the  Uni- 
ted States,  where  less  diA'erencc,  and  very  unjust- 
ly, is  usually  made,  the  full-blooded  Saxon  sells  for 
about  one  third  more  per  pound  than  the  Merino. 
The  fleece  in  good  flocks  averages  about  two  and  a 
half  pounds,  and  often,  if  only  grown  sheep  were  in- 
cluded, would  rise  as  high  as  three.  But  this  is  far 
from  the  standard  of  many  flocks  in  the  United 
States,  called,  and  doubtless  believed  by  their  own- 
ers to  be,  genuine  Saxons.  This  brings  us  to  a  most 
painful  part  of  our  subject,  and  one  which  we  would 
willingly  pass  over  in  silence,  were  not  our  obliga- 
tions to  the  public  paramount  to  any  considerations 
for  the  feelings  of  individuals.  In  disclosing  the 
frauds  practised  on  the  American  public,  we  are 
compelled,  for  the  purpose  of  doing  justice  to  the  in- 
nocent and  the  guilty,  and  also  for  the  information 
of  those  who  have  been  the  purchasers  of  the  im- 
ported sheep,  to  go  into  a  minuteness  of  detail  which 
would  be  otherwise  uninteresting,  and  perhaps  be 
deemed  censurable. 

T!!fe  following  statement  was  submitted  to  the 
committee  by  Mr.  Grove  : 

"  The  first  importation  of  Saxony  sheep  into  the 
United  States  was  made  by  a  merchant  of  Boston, 
at  the  instance  of  Col.  James  Shepherd,  of  North- 
ampton. They  were  but  six  or  seven  in  number. 
In  1824,  Messrs.  G.  &  T.  Searle,  of  Boston,  import- 
ed 77  Saxon  sheep.  They  were  selected  and  pur- 
chased by  a  Mr.  Kretchman,  a  correspondent  of  the 
above  firm  residing  in  Leipzig,  and  shipped  at  Bre- 
men on  board  the  American  schooner  Velocity.  I 
was  engaged  to  take  charge  of  the  sheep  on  the  pas- 
sage, and  I  also  shipped  six  on  my  own  account.    I 

•  "  Fanner's  Series." 


SHEEP   AND   THtlU   -MANAC^flMENT.        195 

am  sorry  to  say,  that  as  many  as  one  third  of  the 
sheep  purchased  by  Kretchman  (who  shared  profit 
and  loss  in  the  undertaking)  were  not  pure-blooded 
sheep.  The  cargo  were  sold  at  auction  at  Brooklyn 
as  '  pure-blooded  electoral  Saxons,'  and  thus,  unfor- 
tunately, in  the  very  outset,  the  pure  and  impure 
became  irrevocably  mixed.  But  I  feel  the  greatest 
certainty  that  the  Messrs.  Searle  intended  to  import 
none  but  the  pure  stock ;  the  fault  lay  with  Kretch- 
man. In  the  fall  of  1824, 1  entered  into  an  arrange- 
ment with  the  Messrs.  Searle  to  return  to  Saxony, 
and  purchase,  in  connexion  with  Kretchman,  from 
160  to  200  electoral  sheep.  I  was  detained  at  sea 
seven  weeks,  which  gave  rise  to  the  belief  that  I 
was  shipwrecked  and  lost.  When  I  finally  arrived, 
the  sheep  had  been  already  bought  by  Kretchman. 
On  being  informed  of  what  the  purchase  consisted, 
1  protested  against  taking  them  to  America,  and  in- 
sisted on  a  better  selection,  but  to  no  purpose.  A 
quarrel  ensued  between  us,  and  Kretchman  even 
went  so  far  as  to  engage  another  to  take  charge  of 
the  sheep  on  their  passage.  My  friends  interposing, 
I  was  finally  induced  to  take  charge  of  them.  The 
number  shipped  was  167, 15  of  which  perished  on  the 
passage.  They  were  sold  at  Brighton,  some  of  them 
going  as  high  as  from  $400  to  $450.  A  portion  of 
this  importation  consisted  of  grade  sheep,  which  sold 
as  high  as  the  pure  bloods,  for  the  American  pur- 
chaser could  not  know  the  difference.  It  may  be 
readily  imagined  what  an  inducement  the  Brighton 
sale  held  out  to  speculation,  both  in  this  country  and 
Saxony.  The  German  newspapers  teemed  with  ad- 
vertisements of  sheep  for  sale, headed'  Good  for  the 
American  market;'  and  these  sheep,  in  many  in- 
stances, were  actually  bought  up  for  the  American 
market  at  five,  eight,  or  ten  dollars  a  head,  when  the 
pure  bloods  could  not  be  purchased  at  from  less  than 
$30  to  $40.  In  1836,  Messrs.  Searle  imported  three 
cargoes,  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  513  sheep. 


196  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

They  were  of  about  the  same  character  with  their 
prior  importations,  in  the  main  good,  but  mixed  with 
some  grade  sheep.  In  the  same  year  a  cargo  of 
221  arrived,  on  German  account,  Emil  Bach,  of 
Leipzig,  supercargo.  A  few  were  good  sheep  and 
of  pure  blood  ;  but,  taken  as  a  lot,  they  were  misera- 
ble. The  owners  sunk  about  $3000.  Next  came 
a  cargo  of  210  on  German  account.  Wassmus  and 
Multer  owners.  The  whole  cost  of  tliese  was  about 
$1125,  in  Germany.  With  the  exccpliju  of  a  small 
number,  procured  to  make  a  flourish  in  their  adver- 
tisements of  sale,  they  were  sheep  having  no  pre- 
tensions to  purity  of  blood.  In  1827,  the  same  in- 
dividuals brought  out  another  cargo.  These  were 
selected  exclusively  from  grade  flocks  of  low  char- 
acter. In  the  same  year,  the  Messrs.  Searle  made 
their  last  importation,  consisting  of  182  sheep.  Of 
these  I  know  little.  My  friends  in  Germany  wrote 
mc  that  they  were  like  their  other  importations,  a 
mixture  of  pure  and  impure  blooded  she^p.  It  is 
due,  however,  to  the  Messrs.  Searle  to  say,  that,  as 
a  whole,  their  importations  were  much  belter  than 
any  other  made  into  Boston. 

"  I  will  now  turn  your  attention  to  the  importa- 
tions made  into  other  ports.  In  1825,  13  Saxons, 
arrived  at  Portsmouth.  They  were  miserable  crea- 
tures. In  1826,  191  sheep  arrived  at  New- York,  per 
brig  William,  on  German  account.  A  portion  of 
these  were  well-descended  and  valuable  animals, 
the  rest  were  grade  sheep.  In  June,  the  same  year, 
the  brig  Louisa  brought  out  173  on  German  account. 
Not  more  than  one  third  of  them  had  the  least  pre- 
tensions to  purity  of  blood.  Next  we  find  158  ship- 
ped at  Bremen  on  German  accoiin*.  Some  were 
diseased  before  they  left  B'-emen.  »iv\  I  an»  happy 
to  state  that  twenty-two  died  before  thAi*-  p.rnval  in 
New- York.  All  I  intend  to  say  of  them  i.«,  >hat  'h^y 
were  a  most  curious  and  motley  mess  of  vvrt<t''b«J 
animals.    The  next  cargo  imported  a/iive<!l  iu  U« 


SHEEP   AND    THEIR    MANAGEMENT.        197 

brig  Maria  Elizabeth,  under  my  own  care.  They 
were  1G5  in  number,  belonging  to  myself  and  F. 
Gebhard,  of  New-York.  These  sheep  cost  me  $65 
a  head  when  landed  in  New- York.  They  sold  at 
an  average  of  $50  a  head,  thus  sinking  about  $2400! 
I  need  not  say  that  they  were  exclusively  of  pure 
blood.  A  cargo  of  81  arrived  soon  after,  but  I  know 
nothing  of  their  quality.  The  next  importation  con- 
sisted of  184,  on  German  account,  per  brig  Warren. 
With  a  few  exceptions,  they  were  pure-blooded  and 
good  sheep.  We  next  have  an  importation  of  200 
by  the  Bremen  ship  Louisa.  They  were  commonly 
called  the  "  stop-sale  sheep."  They  were  of  the 
most  miserable  character,  some  of  them  being  hard- 
ly half  grade  sheep.  The  ship  Phoebe  Ann  brought 
120  sheep,  of  which  I  know  little,  and  60  were  land- 
ed at  Philadelphia,  with  the  character  of  which  I  am 
unacquainted.  Having  determined  to  settle  in  Amer- 
ica, I  returned  to  Saxony,  and  spent  the  winter  of 
1826-7  in'  visiting  and  examining  many  flocks.  I 
selected  115  from,  the  celebrated  flock  of  Machem, 
embarked  on  board  the  ship  Albion,  and  landed  in 
New-York  June  27,  1827.  In  1828  I  received  80 
more  from  the  same  flock,  selected  by  a  friend  of 
mine,  an  excellent  judge  of  sheep.  I  first  drove 
them  to  Shaftesbury,  adjoining  the  town  of  Hoosic, 
where  I  now  reside.  On  their  arrival  they  stood 
me  in  $70  a  head,  and  the  lambs  half  that  sum." 

It  should  be  remarked,  that  the  above  statements 
were  made  by  Mr.  Grove  with  the  greatest  reluc- 
tance, and  only  at  the  earnest  solicitation,  or,  rather, 
requisition  of  the  committee,  who  conceived  it  their 
duty  to  place  the  whole  circumstances  before  the 
public. 

It  will  be  inferred,  from  the  facts  above  stated,  that 
there  are  few  Saxon  flocks  in  the  United  States  that 
liave  not  been  reduced  to  the  quality  of  grade  sheep 
by  the  promiscuous  admixture  of  the  pure  and  the 
impure  which  were  imported  together,  and  aU  sold 


198  AMERICAN    UUSBANDRT. 

to  our  breeders  as  pure  stock.  This  accoiuts  in  t 
satisfactory  manner  for  the  different  estimation  in 
which  this  breed  of  sheep  are  held  in  Germany  and 
in  this  country,  and  for  the  degeneracy  of  tlje  pseu- 
do-Saxon of  the  United  States. 

In  its  general  habits  and  characteristics — its  do- 
cility and  patience  under  confinement,  as  well  as  its 
deficiency  as  a  breeder  and  its  slowness  in  arriving 
at  maturity — the  Saxon  bears  a  close  resemblance 
to  the  Merino.  It  consumes  about  the  same  amount 
of  food,  and  is  equally  remarkable  for  its  longevity. 
Its  mutton,  however,  is  considered  of  better  quaUty, 
and  rather  superior  in  quaUty. 

THE   NEW   LEICESTER    OR   BAKEWELL   SHEEP. 

The  unimproved  Leicester  was  a  "  large,  heavy, 
coarse-wooled  breed"  of  sheep,  inhabiting  the  mid- 
land counties  of  England.  It  is  described  also  as 
having  been  "  a  slow  feeder,  and  its  flesh  coarse- 
grained and  with  little  flavour."  The  breeders  of 
that  period  regarded  only  size  and  weight  of  fleece. 
The  celebrated  Mr.  Bakewell,  of  Dishley,  was  the 
first  who  adopted  a  system  more  in  accordance 
with  the  true  principles  of  breeding.  He  selected 
from  the  flocks  about  him  those  sheep  "  whose  shape 
possessed  the  peculiarities  which  he  considered 
would  produce  the  largest  proportion  of  valuable 
meat  and  offal ;"  and  having  observed  that  animals 
of  medium  size  possess  a  greater  aptitude  to  take  on 
flesh  and  consume  less  food  than  those  which  are 
larger,  and  that  prime  fattening  qualities  are  rarely 
found  in  sheep  carrying  a  great  weight  of  wool,  he 
gave  the  preference  to  those  of  smaller  size,  and 
was  satisfied  with  lighter  fleeces.  To  reach  the 
wonderful  results  obtained  by  Mr.  Bakewell,  it  was 
supposed  that  he  resorted  to  a  cross  with  some  oth- 
er varieties  ;  but  it  seems  how  to  be  well  establish 
ed  that  he  owed  his  success  only  to  a  judicious  prin- 
ciple of  selection,  and  a  steady  adherence  to  certain 
orinciples  of  breeding. 


SHEEP    AND    THEIR    MANAGEMENT.         199 

The  improved  Lficesteris  of  large  size,  but  some- 
what smaller  than  the  original  stock,  and  in  this  re- 
spect falls  considerably  below  the  coarser  varieties 
of  Cotswold,  Lincoln,  &c.  Where  there  is  a  suffi- 
ciency of  feed,  the  New  Leicester  is  unrivalled  for 
its  fattening  properties,  but  it  will  not  bear  hard 
stocking,  nor  must  it  be  compelled  to  travel  far  in 
search  of  its  food.  It  is,  in  fact,  properly  and  ex- 
clusively a  lowland  sheep.  In  its  appropriate  situa- 
tion on  the  luxuriant  herbage  of  our  highly-cultiva- 
ted lands,  it  possesses  unrivalled  earliness  of  matu- 
rity ;  and  its  mutton,  when  not  too  fat,  is  of  a  good 
quality,  though  usually  coarse,  and  comparatively 
deficient  in  flavour,  owing  to  that  unnatural  state  of 
fatness  which  it  so  readily  assumes,  and  which  the 
breeder,  to  gain  weight,  so  generally  feeds  for.  The 
wethers,  having  reached  their  second  year,  are  turn- 
ed off  in  the  succeeding  Febniary  or  March,  and 
weigh  at  that  age  from  thirty  to  thirty-five  pounds 
to  the  quarter.  The  wool  of  the  New  Leicester  is 
long,  averaging,  after  the  first  shearing,  about  six 
inches,  and  the  fleece  weighs  six  pounds.  It  is  of 
coarse  quality,  and  little  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
cloths  on  account  of  its  length,  and  that  deficiency 
of  felting  properties  common,  in  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  to  all  the  English  breeds.  As  a  combing 
wool,  however,  it  stands  first,  and  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  finest  bombasins,  &c. 

The  high-bred  Leicesters  of  Mr.  Bakewell's  stock 
became  shy  breeders  and  poor  nurses;  but  crosses 
subsequently  adopted  have  obviated  these  defects. 
In  England,  where  mutton  is  generally  eaten  by  the 
labouring  classes,  the  meat  of  this  variety  is  in  very 
great  demand,  and  the  consequent  return  which  a 
sheep  possessing  such  fine  feeding  qualities  is  en- 
abled to  make,  renders  it  a  general  favourite  with 
the  breeder.  Instances  are  recorded  of  the  most 
extraordinary  prices  having  been  paid  for  these  ani- 
mals; and  Mr.  Bakewell's  celebrated  buck  "Two 


800  AMERICAN  HUSBANDRY. 

Pounder"  was  let  for  the  enormous  price  of  fou? 
hundred  guineas  ($-2000)  for  a  single  season!  The 
New  Leicester  has  spread  into  all  parts  of  the  Brit- 
ish dominions,  and  been  imported  into  the  other 
countries  of  Europe  and  the  United  States.  They 
were  first  introduced  into  our  own  country  by  the 
late  Christopher  Dunn,  Esq.,  of  Albany,  about  twen- 
ty-five years  since.  Subsequent  importations  have 
been  made  by  Mr.  Powel,  of  Philadelphia,  and  va 
rious  other  gentlemen. 

We  conclude  this  notice  of  the  Leicester  with 
the  following  description  of  what  should  constitut«> 
a  perfect  animal  of  this  breed,  from  the  "  Farmers' 
Series :" 

"  The  head  should  be  hornless,  long,  small,  taper- 
ing towards  the  muzzle,  and  projecting  horizontally- 
forward.  The  eyes  prominent,  but  with  a  quiet  ex- 
pression. The  ears  thin,  rather  long,  and  direct- 
ed backward.  The  neck  full  and  broad  at  its  base, 
where  it  proceeds  from  the  chest,  so  that  there  is, 
with  the  slightest  possible  deviation,  one  continued 
horizontal  line  from  the  rump  to  the  poll.  The 
breast  broad  and  full ;  the  shoulders  also  broad  and 
round,  and  no  uneven  or  angular  formation  where 
the  shoulders  join  either  the  neck  or  the  back,  par- 
ticularly no  rising  of  the  withers,  or  hollow  behind 
the  situation  of  these  bones.  The  arm  fleshy 
through  its  whole  extent,  and  even  down  to  the 
knee.  The  bones  of  the  leg  small,  standing  wide 
apart ;  no  looseness  of  skin  about  them,  and  com- 
paratively bare  of  wool.  The  chest  and  barrel  at 
once  deep  and  round ;  the  ribs  forming  a  considera- 
ble arch  from  the  spine,  so  as  in  some  cases,  and 
especially  when  the  animal  is  in  good  condition,  to 
make  the  apparent  width  of  the  chest  even  greater 
than  the  depth.  The  barrel  ribbed  well  home  ;  no 
irregularity  of  line  on  the  back  or  belly ;  but,  on  the 
sides,  the  carcass  very  gradually  diminishing  in 
width  towards  the  rump.    The  quarters  long  and 


SHEEP   AND   THEIR   MANAGEMENT.        201 

ftiU,  and,  as  with  the  fore  legs,  the  muscles  extend- 
ing down  to  the  hock  ;  the  thighs  also  wide  and  full. 
The  legs  of  a  moderate  length ;  the  pelt  also  mod- 
erately thin,  but  soft  and  elastic,  and  covered  with  a 
good  quantity  of  white  wool,  not  so  long  as  in  some 
breeds,  but  considerably  finer."* 

THE   SOUTH  DOWN. 

This  breed  of  sheep  has  existed  for  several  cen- 
turies in  England,  on  a  range  of  chalky  hills  called 
the  South  Downs.  They  were,  as  recently  as  1776, 
small  in  size,  and  of  a  form  not  superior  to  the 
common  wooled  sheep  of  the  United  States.  Since 
that  period,  a  course  of  judicious  breeding,  pursued 
by  one  man  (Mr.  Ellman,  of  Glynde),  has  mainly 
contributed  to  raise  this  variety  to  its  present  high 
degree  of  perfection,  and  that,  too,  without  the  ad- 
mixture of  the  slightest  degree  of  foreign  blood.  In 
our  remarks  on  this  breed  of  sheep,  it  will  be  under- 
stood that  we  speak  of  the  pure,  improved  family 
as  the  original  stock,  presenting,  with  trifling  modi- 
fications, the  same  characteristics  which  they  exhib 
ited  sixty  years  since,  are  yet  to  be  found  in  Eng- 
land, and,  as  the  middle  space  is  occupied  by  a  va 
riety  of  grades,  rising  or  falling  in  value  as  they 
approximate  to  or  recede  from  the  improved  blood. 

The  South  Down  is  an  upland  sheep  of  medium 
size,  and  its  wool,  which,  in  point  of  length,  belongs 
to  the  middle  class,  is  estimated  to  rank  with  half- 
grade  Merino.  The  average  weight  of  fleece  in  the 
hill-fed  sheep  is  three  pounds,  and  in  the  lowland  four 
pounds.  But  the  Down  is  raised  more  particiJarly 
for  its  mutton,  which  for  quality  takes  precedence 
of  all  other  in  the  English  markets.  Its  early  ma- 
turity, and  extreme  aptitude  to  lay  on  flesh,  render 
il  peculiarly  valuable  for  this  purpose.     The  Down 

♦  Sheep  Husbandry,  p.  110. 

I— a 


202  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

is  turned  off  at  two*  years  old,  and  its  w  eight  at  that 
age  is  from  80  to  100  lbs.  High-fed  wethers  in  Eng- 
land liave  reached  from  32  to  even  40  lbs.  a  quarter! 
Notwithstanding  its  great  weight,  the  Down  has,  in 
the  language  of  Mr.  Youatt.  a  patience  of  occasion- 
al short  keeping  and  an  endurance  of  hard  stocking 
equal  to  any  other  sheep.  This  gives  it  a  decided 
advantage  over  the  bulkier  Leicester,  Lincolns,  &c., 
as  a  mutton  sheep  in  hilly  districts,  and  those  pro- 
ducing short  and  scanty  herbage.  It  is  hardy  and 
healthy,  though,  in  common  with  the  other  English 
varieties,  much  subject  to  the  catarrh  or  "  snuffles," 
and  no  sheep  better  withstands  our  American  win- 
ters. The  ewes  are  prolific  breeders  and  good 
nurses.  The  Down  is  quiet  and  docile  in  its  habits, 
and,  though  an  industrious  feeder,  exhibiting  little 
disposition  to  rove 

A  sheep  possessing  such  qualities  must,  of  course, 
be  exceedingly  valuable  in  upland  districts  in  the 
vicinity  of  markets.  Accordingly,  they  have  been 
introduced  into  every  part  of  the  British  dominions, 
and  imported  into  various  other  countries.  The 
Emperor  of  Russia  paid  Mr.  EUman  three  hundred 
guineas  for  two  rams  ;  and  in  1800,  "  a  ram  belong- 
ing to  the  Duke  of  Bedford  was  let  for  one  season 
at  eighty  guineas,  two  others  at  forty  guineas  each, 
and  four  more  at  twenty-eight  guineas  each."t 
These  valuable  sheep  were  introduced  into  the  Uni- 
ted States  a  few  years  since  by  Col.  J.  H.  Powell, 
of  Philadelphia,  and  a  small  number  was  imported 
by  one  of  the  members  of  this  committee  in  1834. 
The  last  were  from  the  flock  of  Mr.  EUman,  at  a 
cost  of  $60  a  head.  Several  other  importations 
have  since  taken  place. 

The  following  is  the  description  of  the  perfect 

*  Among  breeders,  the  sheep  is  termed  a  two-year  old,  or  a 
two  shear  sheep,  until  three  years  old.  In  this  case  the  sheep 
is  between  two  and  a  half  and  three  vears  old. 

t  "  Farmers'  Scries." 


SHEEP  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.   203 

South  Down  by  Mr.  Ellman,  the  founder  of  the  im- 
proved breed : 

"  The  head  small  and  hornless  ;  the  face  speckled 
or  gray,  and  neither  too  long  or  too  short.  The 
lips  thin,  and  the  space  between  the  nose  and  the 
eyes  narrow.  The  under  jaw  or  chap  fine  and  thin ; 
the  ears  tolerably  wide,  and  well  covered  with  wool, 
and  the  forehead  also,  and  the  whole  space  between 
the  ears  well  protected  by  it,  as  a  defence  against 
the  lly. 

"The  eye  full  and  bright,  but  not  prominent. 
The  orbits  of  the  eye,  the  eye-cap  or  bone,  not  too 
projecting,  that  it  may  not  form  a  fatal  obstacle  in 
lambing.  • 

"  The  neck  of  a  medium  length,  thin  towards  the 
head,  but  enlarging  towards  the  shoulders,  where  it 
should  be  broad  and  high,  and  straight  in  its  whole 
course  above  and  below.  The  breast  should  be 
wide,  deep,  and  projecting  forward  between  the 
fore  legs,  indicating  a  good  constitution  and  a  dis- 
position to  thrive.  Corresponding  with  this,  the 
shoulders  should  be  on  a  level  with  the  back,  and 
not  too  wide  above  ;  they  should  bow  outward  from 
the  top  to  the  breast,  indicating  a  springing  rib  be- 
neath, and  leaving  room  for  it. 

"  The  ribs  coming  out  horizontally  from  the  spine, 
and  extending  far  backward,  and  the  last  rib  pro- 
jecting more  than  others ;  the  back  flat  from  the 
shoulders  to  the  setting  on  of  the  tail ;  the  loin 
broad  and  flat ;  the  rump  broad,  and  the  tail  set  on 
high,  and  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  spine.  The 
hips  wide,  the  space  between  them  and  the  last  rib 
on  either  side  as  narrow  as  possible,  and  the  ribs 
generally  presenting  a  circular  form  like  a  barrel. 

"  The  belly  as  straight  as  the  back. 

"  The  legs  neither  too  long  nor  too  short.  The 
fore  legs  straight  from  the  breast  to  the  foot ;  not 
bending  inward  at  the  knee,  and  standing  far  apart 
both  before  and  behind ;  the  hock  having  a  direction 


204  AMERICAN    HU8BANDKT. 

rather  outward,  and  the  twist,  or  the  meeting  of  tiM 
thighs  behind,  being  particularly  full,  the  bones  fine, 
yet  having  no  appearance  of  weakness,  and  of  a 
speckled  or  dark  colour. 

"The  belly  well  defended  with  wool,  and  the 
wool  coming  down  before  and  behind  to  the  knee 
and  to  the  hock ;  the  wool  short,  close,  curled,  and 
fine,  ^nd  free  from  spiry  projectmg  fibres." 

ON   THE    MANAGEMENT   OF    SHEEP. 

The  committee  on  "  the  feeding  and  management 
of  sheep  in  winter,"  while  they  are  fully  aware  of 
the  importance  of  the  subject  thus  brought  under 
their  notice,  feel  that  they  ca»>suggest  but  little  that 
is  new  and  instructive  to  the  intelligent  farmer  or 
fiock-master  in  the  home  management  of  sheep  as 
now  practised ;  yet  they  are  inclined  to  believe  that 
there  is  much,  both  highly  interesting  and  useful,  to 
be  gathered  from  a  knowledge  of  sheep  husbandry 
in  other  countries,  where  its  vast  importance  (form- 
ing, as  it  does  in  some  cases,  the  chief  wealth  of  the 
nation)  has  called  to  its  aid  all  that  education, 
science,  and  close  observation  could  suggest  for  its 
improvement :  nor  are  instances  wanting  where  this 
valuable  knowledge  has  been  practically  applied  in 
this  state,  with  a  success  that  warrants  thenjommittee 
in  oftering  some  suggestions  from  the  German  prac- 
tice that  may  materially  improve  the  winter  man- 
agement of  sheep  with  us. 

Most  of  the  sheep  in  the  Northern  and  Middle 
States  produce  wool  of  an  improved  quality,  being 
morv°i  or  less  mixed  with  the  Merino,  or  the  impro- 
ved Merino  of  the  Saxony  family,  and  are  principally 
kept  for  their  fleece,  the  carcass  being  a  secondary 
consideration  :  within  a  few  years,  however,  this 
latter  has  become  more  valuable,  from  causes  which 
it  is  not  necessary  to  examine,  as  they  are  evident 
to  every  observuig  mind.  The  committee  would 
therefore  have  it  understood,  that  their  attention  has 


8HEEP    AND   THEIR   MANAGEMENT.  205 

been  almost  exclusively  directed  to  the  management 
of  the  Spanish  sheep,  in  all  their  various  grades,  as 
found  in  this  country 

Many  plans  have  been  recommended,  rules  have 
been  prescribed,  maxims  laid  dovj^n,  and  the  requi- 
site quantities  of  food  stated,  for  maintaining  sheep 
in  a  thriving  and  good  condition.  But  all  these  can 
only  be  understood  relatively,  for  we  must  take  the 
size  of  the  animal  into  consideration  ;  and  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind,  that  a  large  sheep  requires  more 
food  than  a  small  one,  and  that  a  sheep  which  gives 
five  or  six  pounds  of  wool  must  consume  more  than 
one  which  gives  but  three  pounds. 

These  facts  lead  to  a  consideration  which  has  re- 
ceived little  or  no  attention  from  the  great  mass  of 
our  farmers  who  keep  sheep,  namely : 

The  influence  or  effect  of  feed  on  the  quantity  and 
quality  of  the  wool  and  carcass  : 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  rule,  that  two  pounds  of 
good  hay,  or  its  equivalent  in  grain,  roots,  and  straw 
per  day,  fed  regularly  at  three  different  times,  are 
sufficient  for  a  grown  sheep  of  the  Merino  family, 
producing  three  pounds  of  fine  wool,  provided  it  en- 
ters upon  its  winter  keep  healthy  and  in  good  condi- 
tion. For  breeding  ewes,  or  a  larger  race  of  sheep, 
this  quantity  would  not  be  sufficient ;  while  for  a 
race  by  nature  small  and  weak,  it  would  be  more 
than  they  require,  and,  if  fed  to  them,  would  greatly 
diminish  the  quahty  of  the  wool,  though  it  should  in- 
crease its  quantity. 

Farmers  in  Germany  generally  allow  their  sheep 
an  average  of  from  one  and  three  fourths  to  two 
pounds  of  hay  daily  (including  the  whole  flock),  and 
their  sheep  are  vigorous,  healthy,  and  in  good  condi- 
tion, with  the  best  of  wool.  Others  allow  them  one 
and  a  half  pounds  daily,  and  they  do  not  suffer  with 
this  quantity,  but  are  healthy  and  rather  thriving ; 
still  they  do  not  yield  so  much  wool,  nor  is  the  car- 
cass so  heavy ;  while  others  -again,  through  ill-ad- 


206  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

vised  economy,  have  limited  their  sheep  to  one  and  a 
quarter  pounds  of  hay  per  day ;  but  it  was  found  that 
they  sheared  from  ten  to  sixteen  ounces  less  wool 
per  head  ;  that  the  constitution  of  the  animal  could 
not  be  matured,  and  that  he  ultimately  became  a 
diminutive  and  feeble  animal.  The  wool  from  such 
sheep  is  termed  "  hunger-fine,^''  appearing  to  possess 
a  high  degree  of  fineness  upon  the  sheep's  back,  and 
being  extremely  soft  to  the  touch.  "  But,"  says 
Mr.  Eisner,  a  writer  on  sheep  husbandry,  "  this  kind 
of  softness  is  as  exceptionable  as  its  fineness,  both 
arising  from  the  poverty  of  the  animal ;  for,  after 
shearing  and  washing,  it  lessens  to  an  unusual  de- 
gree in  volume."  It  is  deficient  in  strength,  elasti- 
city, and  the  felting  properties,  and  it  does  not  make 
as  perfect  and  durable  a  fabric  as  it  would  had  the 
sheep  been  kept  in  a  thriving  condition.  Its  intrinsic 
value,  therefore,  to  the  manufacturer  is  not  so  great 
as  its  apparent  fineness  would  indicate ;  and  the 
grower,  who  anticipated  a  "  good  clip"  of  wool  from 
his  flock,  is  very  unpleasantly  awakened  from  his 
dream  when  he  finds  that  they  shear  much  less 
than  he  expected  ;  and  this,  we  fear,  is  too  often  the 
case  with  many  of  our  economists  who  undertake  to 
keep  flocks  of  fine-wooled  sheep. 

It  is,  however,  certainly  a  most  erroneous  conclu- 
sion, that  sheep  produce  an  increased  or  extra  quan- 
tity of  wool  in  proportion  to  their  mcreased  or  extra 
quantity  of  food.  "  Farmers  who  were  deceived  by 
this  theory,"  says  Mr.  Eisner,  the  author  above 
quoted,  "  have  been  disappointed ;  for  the  increased 
quantity  of  wool  was  scarcely  half  in  proportion  to 
the  extra  quantity  of  feed,  and  the  quality  was  con- 
siderably deteriorated."  Such  is  the  opinion  of  one 
of  the  most  intelligent  breeders  and  close  observers 
of  the  economy  of  sheep  in  Germany.  The  expe- 
rience of  one  of  the  members  of  this  committee  fully 
goes  to  confirm  the  above  position  ;  and  his  experi- 
ments, made  with  great  attention  and  exactness  for 


SHEEP    AND  THEIR   MANAGEMENT.        207 

a  series  of  years,  both  here  and  in  Germany,  enable 
him  confidently  to  offer  the  following  results  :  that 
sheep  of  good  size,  superior  fineness,  and  thick  fleece, 
when  rightly  fed  and  managed,  produce,  on  an  aver- 
age, two  and  three  fourths  to  three  pounds  of  clean 
wool,  washed  on  the  sheep's  back.  But  a  flock  is 
only  rightly  fed  and  managed  when  they  are  not  al 
lowed  quite  as  much  as  they  would  eat,  thus  ensu- 
ring thriftiness  and  bodily  health.  To  effect  this 
desirable  object,  as  has  been  already  stated,  two 
pounds  of  good  hay,  or  its  equivalent  in  grain,  roots, 
and  straw  per  day,  are  required ;  whereas  the  same 
sheep,  were  they  allowed  as  much  hay  as  they  could 
eat,  would  consume  over  three  pounds,  or  its  equiv- 
alent in  grain,  roots,  and  straw.  Now,  in  order  that 
the  increased  or  extra  quantity  of  wool  be  equal  to 
the  increased  or  extra  quantity  of  hay  or  other  fod- 
der, they  ought  to  shear  from  four  and  an  eighth  to 
four  and  a  half  pounds  of  wool  per  head.  But  this 
is  not  the  case  ;  the  increase  seldom  amounting  to 
more  than  25,  instead  of  50  per  cent.  In  other 
words,  six  pounds  of  hay,  fed  to  three  sheep,  pro- 
duced from  eight  and  a  quarter  to  nine  pounds  of 
wool ;  while  the  same  quantity,  and  of  the  same 
quality,  fed  to  two  sheep  daily,  produced  from  six 
and  seven  eighths  to  seven  and  a  half  pounds  only, 
leaving  a  balance  in  favour  of  the  former  of  from 
one  and  three  eighths  to  one  and  a  half  pounds :  an 
item  in  the  profits  of  a  sheep  establishment  of  some 
importance,  especially  where  large  flocks  are  kept. 
But  this  is  not  the  only  disadvantage  of  high  feed- 
ing ;  for,  while  it  ruins  the  constitution  of  the  ani- 
mal, it  injures  the  quality  of  the  wool. 

Some  German  writers  on  sheep-husbandry  esti- 
mate this  reduction  in  quality  at  ten  per  cent.,  and 
maintain  that  the  greater  waste  in  cleansing  it  in- 
creases the  loss  to  twenty  per  cent. ;  such  wool 
containing  a  larger  quantity  of  oily  or  greasy  sub- 
stances, which   go  far  to   make  up  the  increased 


208  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

weight  of  the  fleece.  Assuming  this  to  be  a  correct 
estimate  (and  it  is  believed  to  be  so),  it  will  be  found 
that,  for  an  outlay  of-  50  per  cent,  in  extra  feed,  only 
five,  or,  at  the  most,  ten  per  cent,  of  wool  is  obtain- 
ed in  return.  It  would,  however,  doubtless  increase 
the  carcass  and  the  quantity  of  manure ;  but  this 
would  be  done  at  too  gi-eat  a  price  ;  though,  if  the 
sheep  were  intended  for  the  shambles,  it  would  alter 
the  case. 

Having  considered  the  influence  or  effect  of  feed 
upon  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  wool,  and 
shown  that  either  extreme,  too  little  or  too  much,  is 
unprofitable  to  the  wool-grower,  the  committee  will, 
in  the  next  place,  proceed  to  that  part  of  their  sub- 
ject relating  to  the  care  and  management  of  sheep 
during  winter. 

It  may  be  classed  under  three  heads :  Feeding, 
Watering,  and  Shelter. 

Food. — This  should  be  such  as  to  agree  with  the 
habits  and  economy  of  the  sheep,  and  should  con- 
tain nourishment  and  bidk  equivalent  to  two  pounds 
of  hay. 

The  varieties  of  winter  provender  to  be  consider- 
ed are  hay  of  all  the  cultivated  grasses,  such  as  clo- 
ver, lucerne,  &c.,  &c.,  and  hay  from  natural  but  dry 
meadows  ;  sound  oat,  barley,  rye,  and  wheat  straw, 
and  well-cured  vetches  and  pea-vines ;  all  kinds  of 
grain  (with  the  exception  of  the  less  healthy  rye), 
roots,  such  as  potatoes,  carrots,  ruta-baga,  mangold- 
wurzel,  turnips,  and  the  different  kinds  of  beets ;  all 
of  which  are  suited  to  the  health,  thrift,  and  the  in- 
ternal economy  of  sheep. 

Of  the  different  kinds  of  hay,  white  and  red  clo- 
ver, sainfoin  and  timothy,  stand  first,  and  seem  to  be 
best  adapted  to  the  nature  of  sheep ;  they  eat  it  with 
great  avidity,  and  with  but  little  abatement  in  appe- 
tite, through  the  whole  of  a  long  winter.  Of  red 
clover  there  are  two  kinds,  the  Northern  and  the 
Southern  ;  the  latter  of  which  makes  much  the  best 


SHEEP  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.  209 

liay.  Sheep  should  be  made  to  eat  up  their  hay 
clean  when  it  is  cut  at  the  right  time  and  well  cured, 
and  that  time  is  when  clover,  lucerne,  p.nd  sainfoin 
are  in  full  bloom,  and  when  timothy  has  about  one 
quarter  to  one  half  of  the  blossom  off.  But  when 
the  growth  is  large  and  the  hay  decayed  at  the  bot- 
tom, then  they  should  not  be  forced  to  eat  it  clean; 
but  an  allowance  must  be  made,  as  the  decayed 
parts,  were  they  compelled  to  eat  them,  would  prove 
hurtful.  Also,  where  hay  has  been  somewhat  in- 
jured by  rains  during  the  process  of  curing,  allow- 
ance should  be  made.  Mow-burned  or  mouldy  hay 
■  should  never  be  used  in  the  sheep-cot,  for  it  causes 
a  general  debility  of  the  system,  and,  if  continued, 
will  ultimately  produce  the  rot. 

Hay  from  lowland  meadows  is  not  as  good  as 
that  from  the  uplands  ;  though,  if  the  former  be  ren- 
ovated by  occasional  ploughing  and  reseeding,  it  im- 
proves the  quality :  but,  in  portioning  out  the  quan- 
tity of  hay  to  sheep,  a  suitable  allowance  should  be 
made ;  and  the  more  of  the  wild  and  sour  grasses 
that  are  mixed  with  it,  the  greater  should  the  allow- 
ance be. 

Hay  from  wet  meadows  is  not  wholesome  for 
sheep,  and  should  never.be  given  them  unless  from 
necessity ;  then  double  the  usual  quantity  must  be 
allowed.  Were  they  confined  to  such  hay,  and 
compelled  to  eat  it  nearly  or  quite  clean,  it  would 
prove  ruinous  to  the  flock. 

Hay  from  meadows  that  have  been  very  highly 
enriched  by  top-dressings,  afford  a  luxuriance  and 
rankness  of  growth  possessing  a  laxative  property, 
and  should  be  dealt  out  to  sheep  very  cautiously, 
especially  to  lambs ;  and  if  it  is  pretty  freely  salted 
with  a  view  of  preserving  it,  still  greater  caution  is 
necessary.  Sheep  will  then  eat  it  greedily,  espe- 
cially if  salt  has  been  withheld  from  them  for  some 
length  of  time ;  but  it  is  then  the  more  dangerous, 
as  foddering  from  it  a  few  days  in  succession,  or 
I.— R 


210  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

even  a  few  times,  creates  excessive  thirst.  Sheep 
drink  an  unusual  quantity  of  water,  and  scouring  is 
thus  produced,  which  often  proves  very  fatal. 

But,  before  entering  upon  any  course  of  feeding, 
it  is  advisable  to  divide  your  sheep  into  different 
^flocks.  The  breeding  ewes  into  one,  the  wethers 
into  another,  and  the  lambs  into  a  third.  From 
these  main  divisions,  subdivisions  may  be  made  as 
circumstances  require,  taking  care  that  the  individu- 
als composing  the  different  flocks  are  as  nearly  as 
possible  of  equal  size  and  strength ;  if  not,  the  weak-  ' 
er  portion  are  not  apt  to  get  a  due  share  of  fodder. . 
And  if  there  be  any  individuals  that  are  old,  feeble, 
&c.,  an  invalid  department  should  be  added,  and 
extra  care  and  attention  bestowed  upon  it. 

Having  all  these  arrangements  completed,  a  care- 
ful supervision  must  be  extended  over  the  whole, 
and  the*  course  of  treatment  regulated  by  circum- 
stances. 

Supposing  the  breeding  ewes  to  be  in  good  condi- 
tion, they  should  receive  one  and  a  half  pounds  of 
hay,  and  one  and  a  quarter  pounds  of  grain  per  day, 
until  the  rutting  season  is  over :  the  grain  must  be 
then  withheld,  and  the  flock  go  through  the  winter 
on  hay,  increasing  it  to  two  and  a  quarter  pounds, 
and  givmg  an  occasional  foddering  of  straw,  until 
within  five  or  six  weeks  of  lambing,  when  this  al- 
lowance should  be  decreased  a  little  and  roots  sub- 
stituted, commencing  by  degrees  with  one  bushel 
of  potatoes,  or  one  bushel  and  five  eighths  of  ruta- 
baga to  one  hundred  ewes,  and  increasing  the  quan- 
tity gradually,  of  potatoes  to  three  bushels,  and  of 
ruta-baga  to  four  and  three  quarter  bushels  per  day. 
With  this  kind  of  treatment  there  will  be  very  little 
difficulty  in  raising  lambs. 

But  when  a  flock  of  ewes  are  not  in  such  condi- 
tion, and  require,  therefore,  more  feed  and  better 
treatment,  two  pounds  of  hay  and  one  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  grain  ought  to  be  fed  daily  until  the  rutting 
season  is  over,  when  the  grain  should  be  withdrawn 


SHEEP  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.    211 

and  roots  immiediately  given,  of  potatoes  two,  or 
ruta-baga  three  bushels  to  a  hundred  per  day,  until 
about  lambing-time,  when  that  quantity  is  to  be  in- 
creased to  three  bushels  of  the  former  and  four  and 
three  quarter  bushels  of  the  latter.  Both  flocks 
should  receive  a  foddering  of  straw  or  good  corn- 
fodder  three  times  a  week,  generally  at  night,  of 
which  they  will  eat  a  considerable  portion,  while 
the  orts  serve  for  litter. 

The  three-year  old  wethers  will  go  through  the 
winter  on  hay,  with  an  occasional  foddering  of 
straw,  the  orts  of  which  serve  them  for  litter.  But 
the  younger  wethers  require  better  feed,  and,  being 
hard  to  winter,  the  best  hay  should  be  given  them, 
with  some  small  additions  of  grain  or  roots,  say  one 
fifth  of  a  pound  of  grain,  or  three  quarters  of  a  pound 
of  potatoes,  or  one  and  a  quarter  pounds  of  ruta- 
baga. 

It  being  very  desirable  tjiat  the  lambs  should  go 
through  the  winter  in  the  best  possible  condition, 
much  care  is  required ;  and  having  given  them  a 
few  sheaves  of  oats  every  evening  before  they  were 
taken  out  of  the  pasture,  it  remains  now  to  be  de- 
termined as  to  the  kind  and  quantity  of  feed  they 
are  to  receive.  This  ought  to  be  the  best  hay,  and 
as  much  of  it  as  they  will  eat  without  cloying.  If 
it  is  well  mixed  with  white  and  red  clover,  and  has 
been  cut  in  good  season  and  well  cured,  it  should  be 
eaten  up  clean.  In  addition  to  this,  from  a  quarter 
to  half  a  bushel  of  oats  per  hundred  head  may  be 
Iheir  daily  allowance,  as  circumstances  require. 

The  flock  of  invalids,  having  been  placed  in  the 
warmest  situation,  claim  every  care  and  attention  ; 
and  no  pains  or  trouble  must  be  spared  to  carry 
them  through  the  winter,  so  that  the  old  ewes  shall 
be  enabled  to  raise  a  lamb  each,  which  will  pay  foi 
all  the  extra  expense  and  trouble  the  whole  have  cost. 

In  connexion  with  the  foregoing  remarks,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  ascertain  the  feeding  properties 
of  grain,  ro'tts,  and  straw,  as  compared  with  hay,  to 


212 


AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 


enable  the  farmer  to  make  his  estimate  of  the  quan* 
tity  he  will  require,  and  to  calculate  the  probable 
jjrofit  or  loss  of  raising  certain  crops,  and  feeding 
ihem  to  sheep. 

The  experiments  of  Mr.  De  Raumer,  of  Kaltwas- 
ser,  in  Silesia,  go  far  to  establish  certain  facts  on 
this  subject.  They  are  interesting  to  the  inquiring 
mind,  and  may  be  considered  as  settled.  Mr.  De 
Raumer  is  a  thorough,  practical,  and  scientific  far- 
mer, and  is  considered  high  authority  on  agricultural 
subjects  :  his  farm-establishment  is  very  extensive, 
and  his  experiments  may  be  relied  upon. 


"  Potatoes,  raw  and  cut  into  slices,  sheep  eat  gree- 
dily, and  with  continued  good  appetite ;  they  ate 
seven  pounds  per  head  daily,  with  an  allowance  ol 
straw.  The  animals  remained  healthy  and  lively, 
and  drank  three  pints  of  water  per  head  daily. 

"  Mangold-wurzel,  sheep  eat  with  less  greediness  : 
they  consumed  regularly  eight  pounds  per  head  dai- 
ly, with  straw  as  with  the  potatoes,  and  drank  scarce- 
ly one  quart  of  water.  The  animals  remained  like- 
wise healthy. 


t.S5 

rrndoMd 

KINM   OP   FEED. 

WOOL 

tallow. 

lb>.  OS. 

IIm.  nl. 

1000 

pound 

s  raw  potatoes,  with  salt    . 
do.             without  salt 

4bi 

b    8i 

•  2    5i 

JOOO 

do. 

44 

6    8 

10  in 

1000 

do. 

raw  mangold -wurzel 

38 

5    3i 

6    5i 

1000 

do. 

pease       .... 

134 

14  11 

41     6 

1000 

do. 

wheat 

155 

13  13i 

59    9 

1000 

do. 

rye,  with  salt  . 

90 

13  14i 

35  Hi 
33     8} 

1000 

do. 

do.  without  salt 

83 

12  104 

1000 

do. 

oats 

146 

9   12 

40    8 

JOOO 

do. 

barley 

1J6 

11     6i 

60     1 

1000 

do. 

buckwheat 

l.iO 

10    il 

33    8 

10()0 

do. 

good  hay 

58 

7  JOl 

12  14 

1000 

do. 

hay,   with    straw,  witboot 

other  fodder 

31 

IS     8 

6  ii 

1000  Ibe.  whiskey  still-grains  or  « 

rash. 

35 

6     1 

4    0 

SHEEP  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.         213 

"  Pease,  sheep  eat  very  eagerly ;  they  consumed 
two  pounds  per  head  per  day,  drank  two  to  three 
quarts  of  water  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  the  ani- 
mals remained  perfectly  healthy.  In  an  unsoaked 
condition,  they  are  iiard  for  sheep  to  eat,  and  affect 
their  teeth. 

"  Wheat,  sheep  eat  greedily,  and  it  disposes  them 
to  be  very  lively ;  they  consumed  two  pounds  per 
head  daily,  drank  from  two  to  three  quarts  of  water, 
and  remained  perfectly  healthy. 

"  Rye,  sheep  do  not  eat  readily,  and  it  does  not 
suit  them  well,  as  the  above  results  in  the  increase 
of  weight  show  :  they  drank  from  two  to  three  quarts 
of  water  daily. 

"  Barley :  of  this  the  jheep  ate  two  and  a  half 
pounds  per  head  daily,  and  throve  upon  it,  drinking 
three  quarts  of  water  in  twenty-four  hours. 

"  Oats  the  same  as  barley. 

"  Buckwheat  the  sheep  ate  with  great  avidity,  and 
with  the  best  results  as  to  health  and  liveliness.  A 
sheep  can  eat  from  three  to  four  pounds,  and  will 
drink  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  quarts  of  water 
in  twenty-four  hours. 

"  Of  good  hay  a  sheep  can  consume  four  and  a 
half  pounds,  and  will  drink  from  two  and  a  half  to 
three  quarts  of  water  in  twenty-four  hours." 

Mr.  W.  A.  Kreisig,  a  celebrated  farmer  in  East 
Prussia,  considers  that  one  pound  of  oil-cake  meal 
is  as  nutritious  as  two  pounds  of  good  hay. 

80  lbs.  of  clor  ^r  hay*  are  equal  to  100  lbs.  mead- 
ow hay. 

80  lbs.  lucerne  and  sainfoin,  to  100  lbs.  do. 

200  lbs.  sound  and  well-cured  vetches  and  pea- 
vines,  to  100  lbs.  do. 

300  lbs.  sound  barley  and  oat  straw,  to  100  lbs.  do. 

*  Note  by  the  Translator — The  dover  in  Germany  grows 
finer  than  the  clover  in  this  section  of  country :  it  reseir.bles 
more  the  Pennsylvania  clover,  and  yields  two  crops  a  season. 
It  is  cut  when  in  full  blow,  and  well  cured  in  cocks. 


214  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

400  lbs.  sound  wheat  and  rye  straw,  to  100  lbs.  do. 

100  lb.s.  water-turnips,  equal  to  40  lbs.  of  potatoes, 
or  60  lbs.  of  inangold-wurzel. 

Mr.  John  Philip  Wagner  says,  in  his  work  entitled 
"  Contributions  to  the  Science  and  Treatment  of 
Wool  and  Sheep,"  that  "  200  ]X)unds  of  potatoes, 
266  pounds  of  carrots,  350  pounds  of  ruta-baga,  and 
90  pounds  of  clover-hay,  lucerne,  and  sainfoin,  are 
each  of  them  equal  to  100  pounds  of  good  hay." 

Your  commitee  beg  leave  farther  to  cite  the  prac- 
tice of  a  few  of  the  most  celebrated  breeders  of  sheep 
in  Germany  ;  and,  first,  that  of  Mr.  Albricht  Thaer. 
of  Moeglin,  in  Prussia.  Potatoes  and  straw  consti- 
tute the  main  feed  for  his  large  flock  of  1500  during 
winter.  He  cuts  the  potatoes  into  small  slices, 
feeding  them  alternately  with  straw.  When  his 
pastures,  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  begin  to  fail,  he 
commences  feeding  potatoes,  by  scattering  them  in 
the  field  in  such  quantities  as  he  deems  suflicient, 
with  the  best  effect  upon  the  health  and  condition 
of  the  animals ;  his  flock  fully  attesting  that  sheep 
may  be  kept  principally  on  roots  and  straw.  One 
of  the  committee,  who  has  been  familiar  with  sheep- 
husbandry  both  in  this  country  and  in  Germany, 
confidently  believes,  from  his  knowledge  on  the  sub- 
ject, that  the  same  practice  can  be  profitably  applied 
in  our  sheep-husbandr>'. 

Mr.  Bloeck,  of  Schieraw,  in  Silesia,  one  of  the 
most  intelligent  and  experienced  breeders  of  sheep, 
keeps  a  flock  of  500  in  the  following  manner. 
He  fodders  si.\  times  a  day. 

1st  fodder— 208  lbs.  rye  straw,  of  which  they  eat  .     52  lbs. 
2d  fodder— 130  lbs.  oat      do.        do.        do.         .     97  lb*. 
3d  fodder— the  dry  sheep  receive  160  lbs  of  pea- 
vines,  of  which  they  eat  .        .        .   120  lbs. 
the  ewes  receive  hay  .  .120  lbs. 

4thfodder — potatoes  mixed  with  cut  straw  750  lbs. 
rye  bran  ....  31  Itw. 
oil-cako  meal,  ...  8  Iba. 
barley  meal,  «       .      33  lbs. 

822  IbiL 


,    69  lbs. 

.    CD  lbs 

.  100  lbs. 

.    72  lbs. 

.     75  lbs. 

SHEEP  AND  THEIR  MANAGEMENT.  215 

5th  fodder— the  ewes  retfeive  hay  .        .        .  120  lbs. 

the  wethers  160  lbs.  pea-vines,  of 

which  they  eat  ...  .  120  lbs. 
6th  and  last  fodder— 203  lbs.  of  rye  and  wheat 

straw,  of  which  they  eat       .        .     52  lbs. 

Total  amount  consumed  per  day        .        .  1503  lbs. 

The  flock  was  of  superior  quality,  the  animals 
large,  and  always  in  excellent  condition. 

C/Ount  Magnis,  of  Eckhardsdorf,  gave  to  100  breed-      g 
ing  ewes  the  following  per  day : 

1st  fodder— straw  and  clover  hacker 
2d  fodder — the  same        .        .        .        , 
3d  fodder — clover  hay     .... 
4th  fodder— potatoes  and  straw  hacker 
,    5th  fodder— straw  .... 

Total         ......  395  lbs. 

The  daily  portion  of  the  electoral  flock  of  Rennes- 
dorf,  the  private  property  of  the  King  of  Saxony, 
consisting  of  400  breeding  ewes  and  rams,  was  1000 
pounds  of  hay  in  two  meals,  and  at  night  a  fodder- 
ing of  straw. 

Many  other  valuable  practices  of  the  German 
shepherds  might  be  cited ;  but  your  committee,  fear- 
ing that  they  have  already  exhausted  your  patience, 
forbear  to  enlarge  upon  them ;  they  therefore  pro- 
ceed to  the  consideration  of  the  second  proposition, 
namely,  water. 

All  domestic  animals  require  water  in  proportion 
to  the  quantity  of  dry  provender  they  consume ;  and 
sheep  demand  particular  attention  in  this  respect,  as 
well  as  some  care  in  regulating  the  quantity,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances.  Warm  springs  are  always  to 
be  preferred ;  though  sheep  are  frequently  to  be 
seen  eating  snow,  which  may  be  attributed  in  most 
cases  to  fever. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  flock  should  be  able  to  drink 
without  wetting  their  feet  or  wading  into  the  mud, 
both  of  which  are  not  only  very  injurious  by  pro- 


216  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

ducing  disease  in  the  foot,  but  deter  the  animals 
from  drinking  as  often  as  incHnation  prompts. 

Protection  against  the  inclemencies  of  the  season 
is  the  third  consideration  in  the  "  feeding  and  man- 
agement of  sheep  in  winter."  It  is  almost  as  ne- 
cessary to  their  health  and  prosperity  as  food  itself, 
and  for  this  reason,  comfortable  shelters  should  be 
built  for  them  :  they  not  only  do  much  better,  but  it 
is  a  great  saving  of  time,  fodder,  and  manure.  It 
will  be  found  that  ten  tons  of  hay,  fed  to  sheep  that 
have  warm  shelter,  will  go  farther  than  twelve  tons 
fed  out  to  them  from  a  stack,  and  when  they  have 
no  other  protection  from  the  inclemencies  of  the 
■weather  than  the  side  of  the  stack  or  a  fence.  Such 
stables,  if  properly  constructed,  will  pay  at  least 
from  15  to  25  per  cent,  interest  annually.  This 
alone  should  prompt  the  owner  of  a  flock  to  provide 
comfortable  lodging  places  for  them.  "  A  merciful 
man  is  merciful  to  his  beast. ^^ 

Each  full-grown  sheep  requires  six  square  feet  of 
room,  including  racks.  The  stable  should  be  eight 
feet  high,  with  windows  in  the  upper  part,  that  may 
be  closed  as  circumstances  require.  The  floor  over- 
head ought  to  be  made  tight,  that  nothing  may  fall 
through.  The  animals  must  be  well  littered,  as  it 
will  add  much  to  their  health  and  comfort.  Where 
this  is  neglected,  the  dung  accumulates  and  creates 
an  offensive  smell,  and  the  sheep  are  then  very  loath 
to  enter  their  stables.  It  is  but  too  often  the  case, 
that  when  farmers  do  shelter  tlieir  sheep,  the  stables 
contain  a  mass  of  dung  so  offensive  that  the  flock 
will  not  enter  them,  and,  if  forced  in  and  confined 
.there,  it  proves  highly  injurious :  hence  the  preju- 
dice "  that  housing  sheep  is  injurious  to  their  health." 


OUR  COUNTRY — OUR  WHOLE  COUNTRY.  217 


CHAPTER  X. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Our  Oountky — ocr  whole  Country.— Clover :  its  value  for 
Cattle,  for  Seed,  and  for  the  Soil. — Use  of  Clover.— Clover 
and  Clover-seed. — Prevention  of  Smut. — Why  is  it  best  to 
bury  Manure  ? — Butter-making. — Drill  Husbandry. — Effect 
of  Steeps. — Modes  and  Profits  of  Strawberry  Culture.  — Sta- 
tistics of  American  Wool  and  Woollen  Manufactures. — Ex- 
periment in  Harvesting  Corn. — Cultivation  of  Cucumbers. — 
The  circumscribed  Farmer  &c.,  &c. 

There  is  no  one  business  of  life  which  so  highly 
conduces  to  national  prosperity  and  independence, 
and  to  general  and  individual  happiness,  as  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  soil.  Agriculture  may  be  regarded, 
says  the  great  Sully,  as  the  breasts  from  which  the 
state  derives  its  support  and  nourishment.  Agricul- 
ture is  truly  our  nursing  mother,  which  nurtures, 
and  gives  growth,  and  wealth,  and  moral  health, 
and  character  to  our  country.  It  may  be  consider- 
ed as  the  great  wheel  which  moves  all  the  machine- 
ry of  society ;  and  that  whatever  gives  to  this  a  new 
impulse  or  energy,  communicates  a  corresponding 
impetus  to  the  thousand  minor  wheels  of  interest 
which  it  propels  and  regulates.  Providence  seems 
wisely  to  have  ordained,  that  because  this  is  the 
most  necessary  employment  towards  the  subsist- 
ence and  comfort  of  the  human  family,  its  labours 
shall  receive  the  highest  and  most  substantial  re- 
ward. While  the  other  classes  of  society  are  di- 
rectly dependant  upon  agriculture  for  a  regular  and 
sufficient  provision  of  the  means  of  subsistence,  the 
agriculturist  is 'enabled  to  supply  all  the  absolute 
wants  of  life  fiom  his  own  labours,  though  he  de- 
rives most  of  his  pleasures  and  profits  from  an  in- 


218  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

terchange  of  the  products  of  his  industry  with  the 
other  classes  of  society.  Agriculture  has  been  call- 
ed the  parent  of  arts,  not  only  because  it  was  the 
first  art  practised  by  man,  but  because  the  other  arts 
are  its  legitimate  offspring,  and  cannot  continue  long 
to  exist  without  it.  It  is  the  great  business  of  civ- 
ilized hfe,  and  gives  employment  to  a  vast  majority 
of  almost  every  people. 

The  substantial  prosperity  of  a  country  is  always 
in  the  ratio  of  its  agricultural  industry  and  wealth. 
Commerce  and  manufactures  may  give  temporary 
consequence  to  a  state ;  but  these  are  always  a 
precarious  dependance.  Venice,  Genoa,  Portugal, 
Spain,  &c.,  each  in  turn  rose  to  wealth  and  power 
from  commercial  enterprise  ;  but  they  all  now  ex- 
hibit melancholy  evidences  of  fallen  greatness. 
Their  population  degenerated  under  the  corrupting 
influence  of  commercial  wealth,  and,  having  no  suit- 
able agricultural  basis  to  rest  upon,  they  have  fallen 
in  succession  from  their  high  standing,  victims  to 
the  enervating  influence  of  domestic  cabals,  or  be- 
fore the  more  robust  energies  of  rival  powers.  They 
exhibit  nothing  now,  in  their  political  or  social  insti- 
tutions, in  their  agriculture  or  the  condition  of  their 
population,  that  can  be  admired  or  coveted  by  the 
freemen  of  America.  CSrcat  Britain  has  now  be- 
come ascendant  in  commerce  and  manufactures ; 
yet  her  greatness  in  thesie  sources  of  power  and  op- 
ulence is  primarily  and  principally  owing  to  the  ex- 
cellent state  of  her  agriculture ;  without  which  she 
could  not  maintain  her  manufactures  or  commerce 
in  their  present  flourishing  state,  or  long  retain  her 
immense  foreign  possessions,  or  anything  like  her 
present  population.  Only  one  third  of  her  people 
are  said  to  be  employed  in  agriculture ;  j'et  their 
labours,  such  is  the  high  condition  of  her  husbandry, 
suffice  to  feed  themselves  and  the  other  two  thirds. 
An  agricultural  population  of  five  millions,  of  all 
ages,  produces  annually,  from  her  limited  soil,  seven 


OUR  COUNTRY — OUR  WHOLE  COUNTRY.  219 

hundred  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  agricultural  pro- 
duce, averaging  about  one  hundred  and  forty  dollars 
to  each  man,  woman,  and  child.  The  recently-pub- 
lished letters  of  Dr.  Humphreys  are  so  conclusive 
and  instructive  upon  this  subject,  not  only  in  regard 
to  the  importance  of  agriculture  to  a  nation,  but  as 
showing  the  susceptibility  of  this  art  of  high  im- 
provement and  great  productiveness,  that  we  subjoin 
below  an  extract  from  one  of  them. 

"  It  is  the  opinion  of  competent  judges,  that  the 
advances  made  in  the  agriculture  of  Great  Britain 
during  the  last  seventy  or  eighty  years,  are  scarcely 
exceeded  by  the  improvement  and  extension  of  her 
manufactures  within  the  same  period,  and  that  to 
these  advances  no  other  old-settled  country  furnish- 
es any  parallel.  That  they  have  been  very  rapid, 
indeed,  the  following  figures  and  comparisons  abun- 
dantly show.  In  1760,  the  total  growth  of  all  kinds 
of  grain  in  England  and  Wales  was  about  120,000,000 
bushels.  To  this  should  be  added,  perhaps,  50,000,000 
for  Scotland ;  making  a  great  total  of  170,000,000. 
In  1835,  the  quantity  in  both  kingdoms  could  not 
have  been  less  than  340,000,000  bushels.  In  1755, 
the  population  of  the  whole  island  did  not  much,  if 
any,  exceed  7,500,000.  In  1831  it  had  risen  to 
16,525,180,  being  an  increase  of  9,000,000,  or  120 
per  cent. !  Now  the  improvements  in  agriculture 
have  more  than  kept  pace  with  this  prodigious  in- 
crease of  demand  for  its  various  productions  ;  for  it 
is  agreed  on  all  hands,  that  the  16,500,000,  or,  rath- 
er, the  17,500,000  (for  more  than  a  million  has  been 
added  since  1831),  are  much  fuller  fed,  and  on  pro- 
visions of  a  far  better  quality,  than  the  7,500,000 
were  in  1755.  Nor  is  Great  Britain  indebted  at  all,  at 
present,  to  foreign  markets  for  her  supplies.  Since 
1832,  she  has  imported  no  grain  worth  mentioning; 
and  till  within  the  last  six  months,  prices  have  been 
so  exceedingly  depressed  as  to  call  forth  loud  com- 
plaints from  the  whole  agricultural  interest  of  the 


820  AMERICAN  HUSBANDRY. 

country.  England  is  at  this  moment  so  far  from 
wanting  any  of  our  breadstuffs,  if  we  had  them  to 
export,  that  she  has  been  supplying  us  liberally  aU 
winter  from  her  own  granaries ;  and,  according  to 
the  latest  advices,  she  had  still  bread  enough  and  to 
spare.  Again  :  it  is  estimated  by  British  writers  of 
high  authority,  that  the  subsistence  of  9,000,000  peo- 
ple costs,  in  raw  produce,  no  less  than  jC72,000,000, 
or  £8  for  each  individual,  per  annum.  According 
to  this  estimate,  the  annual  product  of  this  great 
branch  of  national  industry  is  $350,000,000  more  at 
present  than  it  was  in  1755;  which  is  more  than 
twice  the  value  of  the  whole  cotton  manufacture  of 
the  country  in  1831.  Now  if  it  costs  $350,000,000 
to  feed  the  increased  population  of  9,000,000,  then 
to  feed  the  whole  population  of  17,500,000  must  cost 
nearly  $700,000,000 !  What  an  amazing  agricultu- 
ral product  for  so  small  a  territory !  And  yet  it  is 
the  opinion  of  practical  men  of  the  highest  respecta- 
bility in  England,  that  the  raw  produce  of  the  island 
might  be  wellnigh  doubled,  without  any  greater 
proportional  expense  being  incurred  in  its  produc- 
tion ;  that  is  to  say,  35,000,000  people  might  draw 
their  subsistence  from  one  little  speck  in  the  ocean  I 
Now  we  have  a  territory  more  than  fifteen  times  as 
large  as  the  island  of  Great  Britain  ;  and  what  should 
hinder  it,  whejj  it  comes  to  be  brought  under  no 
higher  cultivation  than  some  parts  of  England  and 
Scotland,  from  sustaining  a  population  of  500  or  600 
millions  of  people  1  This  would  give  to  Virginia 
something  like  thirty  millions ;  to  Illinois  and  Mis- 
souri about  the  same  number  each;  to  New- York 
near  twenty-five  millions,  and  so  on  in  proportion 
to  the  other  states.  I  am  quite  aware  that  this  es- 
timate will  be  regarded  as  extremely  visionary  and 
incredible  by  many  readers ;  but  not  more  so  than 
it  would  have  been  thought,  in  the  middle  of  the  last 
century,  that  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales  could 
ever  be  made  to  sustain  thirty-five,  or  even  thirty 
millions." 


OUR  COUNTRY — OUR  WHOLE  COUNTRY.  221 

A  city  may  flourish  by  foreign  commerce,  by  be- 
coming the  carrier  of  other  nations,  till  foreign  ag- 
gression, or  foreign  rivalship,  or  the  opening  of  new 
channels  of  trade — contingences  of  no  unfrequent 
occurrence — shall  blast  its  prospects,  and  consign  it, 
like  Persepolis,  Petra,  Tyre,  and  other  ancient  cities 
of  the  East,  to  ruin  and  oMi\ion. 

A  town  or  district  may  Uuurish  by  manufacturings 
industry,  as  many  have  done  in  ancient  and  in  mod- 
ern times,  so  long  as  it  can  exchange  its  merchan- 
dise for  the  means  of  subsistence  and  of  acquiring 
wealth ;  but  if  its  dependance  for  these  is  upon  for- 
eign lands,  its  prosperity  is  unstable ;  the  interchange 
is  liable  to  be  inten-upted  by  wars,  rivalships,  and 
other  contingences. 

A  country  can  be  long  prosperous  and  truly  inde- 
pendent only  when  it  is  sustained  by  agricultural 
intelligence  and  agricultural  industry.  Its  foreign 
commerce  may  be  swept  from  the  ocean;  its  manu- 
factures may  perish ;  yet  still,  if  its  soil  be  tilled, 
and  well  tilled,  it  can  be  made  to  yield  all  the  abso- 
lute necessaries  of  life ;  it  can,  when  misfortunes 
abate,  like  the  roots  of  the  trunkless  tree,  send  forth 
a  new  stem,  new  branches,  new  foliage,  and  new 
fruit ;  it  can  rear  again  the  edifice  of  the  manufac- 
turer, and  spread  again  the  sails  of  commerce ;  and 
it  will  yet  retain  the  germe  and  the  spirit  of  inde- 
pendence. 

The  preceding  facts  will  serve  to  show  the  im- 
portance of  agriculture  to  a  nation  in  sustaining  its 
prosperity  and  its  independence,  and  in  supplying 
the  wants  and  multiplying  the  comforts  of  its  popu- 
lation. The  same  reasoning  that  applies  to  nations, 
applies  to  states,  to  counties,  to  towns,  and  to  neigh- 
bourhoods. Agriculture  constitutes  the  basis  of  their 
prosperity,  directly  or  remotely ;  and  the  blessings 
which  It  confers  are  always  in  the  ratio  of  the  intel- 
ligence, skill,  and  industry  which  direct  and  control 
its  operations.    Take  a  town,  for  example,  which 


ii22  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

has  a  mixed  population  of  the  various  classes  of  so- 
ciety. If  the  average  pro<luce  of  lach  acre  of  land 
is  but  ten  dollars,  it  is  biin  ly  sufltcient  to  cover  ex- 
penses and  to  feed  the  fanner's  family.  Having 
nothing  to  sell,  the  farmer,  of  course,  cannot  buy  ; 
or,  if  he  buys,  he  cannot  ])ay  the  merchant,  the  man- 
ufacturer, or  the  mechanic ;  nor  can  he  support  the 
fawyer,  the  physician,  the  schoolmaster,  or  the  cler- 
gyman. But  if  every  acre  be  made  to  yield  tliirty 
dollars'  worth  of  produce  annually,  vk^hich  most 
lands,  properly  managed,  are  capable  of  doing,  the 
twenty  dollars,  or  two  thirds  of  the  whole  product 
of  the  soil,  become  virtually  a  circulating  medium. 
It  is  so  much  surplus  wealih  created  by  the  agricul- 
tural labour  of  the  town.  Now  let  us  suppose,  far- 
ther, that  the  lands  in  the  town  amount  to  twenty 
thousand  acres.  Under  the  reckless  system  of 
management  which  too  generally  prevails,  and 
which,  upon  the  average,  does  not  produce  over  ten 
dollars  an  acre  on  old  improved  lands,  the  product 
would  be  barely  sufficient  to  maintain  the  agricul- 
tural population,  without  adding  to  their  wealth,  or 
enabUng  them  to  buy  of  the  merchant  or  others  the 
necessaries  and  comforts  which  they  stand  in  need 
of.     I  am  aware  that  this  does  not  hold  good  in 

Eractice  ;  for  even  the  most  shiftless  farmers  buy ; 
ut  if  they  pay,  it  is  at  the  expense  of  many  of  the 
substantial  comforts  of  life,  or  perhaps,  ultimately, 
of  their  farms,  which  they  might  continue  to  enjoy, 
and  to  increase  in  value,  under  a  more  enlightened 
system  of  management.  But  under  the  improved 
system,  which  we  have  not  graduated  high  at  thirty 
dollars  per  acre,  and  which  is  under  the  average 
product  of  well-cultivated  lands  both  in  Europe  and 
America,  the  aggregate  agricultural  labour  of  the 
town  would  give  an  annual  increase  to  its  wealth  of 
four  hundred  thousand  dollars.  Is  there,  then,  an  in- 
telligent, reflecting  man,  who  cannot  see  and  appre- 
ciate the  advantages  to  society,  to  the  state,  and  to 


OUR  COUNTRY OUR  WHOLE  COUNTRY.  228 

the  nation,  of  a  highly-improved  stale  of  agriculture  1 
Is  there  one  who  does  not  see  that  his  personal  in- 
terests are  promoted  by  this  certain  and  constant 
influx  of  wealth,  drawn  from  the  soil,  prolific  in  the 
bounties  and  blessings  of  a  wise  and  beneficent  Cre- 
ator ?  He  has  spread  everywhere  the  means  of 
making  man  wise  and  happy.  He  has  given  him 
the  capacity  to  apply  these  means  to  his  own  good. 
He  has  commanded  him  to  bring  his  capacities 
into  constant  and  active  exercise ;  and  He  has 
promised  to  reward,  and  He  will  reward,  all  who 
prove  faithful  to  the  command. 

I  do  not  aim  to  disparage  the  other  great  branches 
of  national  industry,  which  are  bountiful  sources  of 
wealth  and  happiness,  by  praising  agriculture  ;  but  I 
think  the  importance  of  this  great  business  to  the 
state  has  not  been  duly  appreciated,  nor  its  interests 
sufficiently  regarded  and  promoted  by  those  who 
have  had  the  management  of  our  state  affairs.  My 
object  is  merely  to  make  agriculture  the  base,  as  it 
ought  to  be,  of  the  social  edifice.  We  are  so  prone 
to  look  up  for  blessings  to  what  are  termed  the  high- 
er walks  of  life,  and  to  expect  them  to  fall  upon  us 
without  an  effort,  that  it  becomes  necessary,  at 
times,  to  point  to  their  legitimate  sources  below,  in 
the  soil.  Agriculture,  manufactures,  and  commerce 
are  all  important,  in  a  public  point  of  view,  in  the 
order  in  which  we  have  named  them  ;  and,  like  the 
human  body  and  its  members,  are  reciprocal  aids  to 
each  other.  The  agriculturist  gathers  from  the  soil 
the  elements  of  usefulness ;  the  manufacturer  fits 
them  to  our  wants  ;  and  the  merchant  becomes  the 
factor  of  both,  and  the  medium  of  interchange 

It  is  but  just,  in  the  mean  time,  to  suggest  some 
of  the  important  bearings  which  our  manufactures 
have  upon  the  prosperity  and  independence  of  our 
country.  These  consume  the  surplus  products  of 
the  soil ;  they  convert  into  useful  fabrics  the  wool, 
the  hemp,  the  flax,  and  much  of  the  cotton,  of  the 


224  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

farmer  and  the  planter ;  and  they  supply  to  the  great 
agricultural  mass  of  population  articles  of  necessity 
and  convenience,  at  a  cheaper  rale  and  of  better 
quality  than  the  farmer  could  fabricate  them  for 
himself.  The  manufacturers  of  our  country  consume 
more  of  the  surplus  provisions  of  our  soil  than  all  Eu- 
rope, Asia,  and  Africa  put  together.  I  know  it  is  said 
that  we  can  gel  our  wearing  apparel  from  Europe, 
had  we  no  protecting  duties,  cheaper  than  we  can 
manufacture  it  ourselves.  And  this  is  undoubtedly 
true  as  regards  many  articles  that  we  use.  But 
what  would  be  the  consequence?  What  was  the 
consequence  in  1836,  when  we  were  flooded  with 
foreign  goods  without  the  means  of  paying  for 
them  ?  Our  manufacturers  became  embarrassed ; 
many  of  the  mills  were  stopped ;  and  a  general 
stagnation  of  all  business  ensued.  Had  the  causes 
which  produced  that  state  of  things  continued  to 
operate,  a  complete  prostration  of  our  manufacturing 
energies  must  have  ensued,  and  the  manufacturer 
been  obliged  to  seek  his  employment  and  his  bread 
among  the  agricultural  class :  the  home  market  for 
the  surplus  products  of  our  soil  would  have  been 
thus  cut  off,  and  the  stimuli  to  industry  and  enter- 
prise everywhere  paralyzed.  Europe  does  not  want, 
and  will  not  buy,  our  agricultural  products.  She 
sells  to  us  even  breadstuffs.  Ours  must  find  a  home 
market,  or  no  market  at  all. 

But  there  is  another  consideration  which  claims 
from  us  an  interest  in  ouf  manufactures.  Why  are 
manufactured  goods  cheaper  in  Europe  than  they 
are  in  America?  Not  because  our  workmen  are 
less  expert  or  our  machinery  less  perfect.  The 
difference  lies  in  the  social  condition  of  the  work- 
men of  the  two  countries — in  the  price  of  labour. 
So  depressed  is  the  condition  of  the  operatives  in 
Europe,  that  they  are  compelled  to  labour  for  a  bare 
subsistence.  They  enjoy  but  few  political  rights. 
There  the  many  toil  to  support  the  few  in  luxury 


OUR  COUNTRY — OUR  WHOLE  COUNTRY.  225 

and  extravagance.  Here  the  case  is  widely  differ- 
ent. Our  citizens  enjoy  equal  rights,  and  the  spirit 
of  our  institutions  demands  that  they  should  be  so 
rewarded  for  their  labour  as  to  be  able  to  assert  and 
maintain  their  rights.  Depress  them  by  poverty 
and  want  to  the  condition  of  the  operatives  in  Euro- 
pean workshops,  and  you  degrade  them  as  men,  and 
render  them  dangerous  as  freemen. 

The  interests  of  the  different  classes  of  society  in 
our  country  are  so  intimately  interwoven,  that  it 
may  be  assumed  as  a  truth,  that  each  class  and 
each  individual  best  subserve  their  own  good,  when 
they  endeavour  to  promote  the  welfare  of  ail,  of  ev- 
ery other  class  and  individual.  It  conies,  then,  to 
this,  if  our  views  of  the  matter  are  correct,  that  ag- 
riculture, being  the  great  conservative  principle  of 
national  prosperity,  independence,  and  character, 
should  be  primarily  supported — should  be  encour 
aged,  enlightened,  and  honoured  ;  that  our  manufac- 
tures, being  necessary,  like  the  elaborating  organs 
of  the  plant,  to  convert  to  convenient  and  useful 
purposes  the  products  of  agriculture,  should  hold  the 
second  rank  in  our  regards — as  a  branch  of  national 
industry  which  cannot  be  dispensed  with  without 
manifest  injury  to  the  other  classes  of  society,  and 
without  perilling  our  independence  as  a  nation  ;  and 
that  agriculture  and  manufactures  being  duly  cher- 
ished, commerce,  as  a  necessary  medium  of  inter- 
change between  the  two  great  branches  of  national 
industry,  and  between  them  and  foreign  nations, 
will  as  certainly  prosper  and  flourish  as  the  tree  in 
a  rich  soil,  which  is  braced  and  supported  by  a  good 
system  of  roots -below,  and  has  a  healthy  top  and 
foliage  above.  Let  us,  then,  improve  our  agricul- 
ture, and  foster  and  protect  our  manufactures,  that 
our  commerce  may  enlarge  its  boundaries  and  mul- 
tiply its  gains.  Then  may  we,  in  the  spirit  of  oui 
motto,  exclaim,  our  copntry — our  whole  ^  ounthy. 

I.— S 


226  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 


CLOVER  :     ITS   VALUE    FOR  CATTLE,   FOR   SEED,  AND   rOR 
THE   SOIL. 

We  have  received  a  conimunication  from  Mr 
Henry  Brewer,  of  Enfield,  Tompkins  county,  illus- 
trating  the  value  of  clover  as  a  means  of  keeping  up 
the  fertility  of  his  soil,  and  of  rendering  its  culture 

f>rofitable.  Mr.  Brewer  was  from  old  Dutchess,  the 
and  of  clover.  He  purchased  his  farm  in  Enfield 
in  1830,  at  $8  50  per  acre.  It  now  gives  a  product 
of  from  fifteen  to  forty  dollars  per  acre  per  annum ; 
and  the  improvement  and  the  profit  he  ascribes  prin- 
cipally to  the  cultivation  of  clover.  As  the  commu- 
nication is  very  lengthy,  having  the  writer's  permis- 
sion to  do  so,  we  give  the  purport  of  it  in  a  con- 
densed form. 

Mr.  Brewer  remarks,  that  New- York  farmers  pay 
ro  those  of  New-Jersey  and  Pennsylvania  annually 
many  thousand  dollars  for  clover-seed,  which  they 
might  raise  for  themselves  with  profit.  He  would 
as  soon  think  of  buying  his  seed-oats  and  seed- 
wheat  as  his  clover-seed.  He  prefers  the  Southern 
or  dwarf  clover,  because  it  is  fit  to  cut  five  or  ten 
days  earlier  than  the  tall-growing  or  Northern  kind, 
and  is  more  certain'of  ripening  the  seed  of  the  sec- 
ond crop.  He  sows  with  his  small  grain  at  the  rate 
of  fifteen  lbs.  the  acre,  and  sometimes  sows  his  corn- 
fields after  the  last  hoeing. 

Mr.  Brewer  appropriates  his  clover  to  three  very 
valuable  purposes  :  to  feed  his  stock,  to  fertilize  his 
land,  and  to  fill  his  purse ;  and  he  has  succeeded 
admirably  in  them  all,  so  far  as  we  can  judge.  His 
cattle  thrive  upon  it,  both  as  a  green  and  a  dry  crop, 
in  summer  and  winter ;  his  wheat  and  com  feed  and 
thrive  upon  it,  when  buried  and  decomposing  in  the 
soil ;  and  his  purse  increases  with  the  increase  of 
his  cattle  and  his  crops.  And,  finally,  besides  feed- 
ing his  cattle  and  fertilizing  his  soil,  the  seed  of  his 
seoond  crop  gives  him  an  acroable  profit,  ammally, 


clover:   its  uses.  227 

of  from  fifteen  to  fifty  dollars.  Now  there  is  no  se- 
cret in  the  business,  no  patent  right.  He  gives  you 
his  whole  process,  that  you  may  profit  by  his  exam- 
ple if  you  will.  We  shall  endeavour  to  present  it  in 
concise  and  plain  terms. 

Clover  is  used  either  for  hay  or  pasture  the  first 
crop,  and  uniformly  for  seed  and  forage  the  second 
crop.  If  for  pasture,  he  turns  his  stock  upon  it 
about  the  first  of  May,  or  when  the  soil  has  become 
so  firm  that  the  feet  of  the  cattle  will  not  poach  the 
sod.  At  this  time,  the  growth  is  such  as  to  enable 
the  cattle  to  thrive.  He  pastures  till  about  the  20th 
of  June,  and  the  closer  it  is  cropped  at  this  time,  the 
better,  he  thinks.  The  cattle  are  then  withdrawn, 
and  the  second  crop  is  permitted  to  grow  and  ma- 
ture its  seed.  If  the  first  crop  is  designed  for  hay, 
it  is  cut  from  the  20th  to  the  26th  of  June,  although 
it  may  not  have  passed  the  bloom,  or  arrived  at  that 
state  when  most  farmers  deem  it  in  a  proper  condi- 
tion to  be  cut.  It  is  important  to  cut  it  as  early  as 
the  25th,  Mr.  B.  thinks,  in  order  to  give  the  second 
crop  time  to  grow  and  mature  its  seed  before  it  is 
injured  by  the  frosts  of  autumn ;  five  days  often 
making  a  material  difference  in  the  seed-crop.  We 
do  not  like  Mr.  B.'s  mode  of  curing  this  early-cut 
clover:  he  takes  it,  when  partially  cured,  to  his 
barn,  and  spreads  it  about  upon  scaffolds  and  poles 
till  made,  and  then  puts  it  into  his  bay.  This  causes 
unnecessary  labour.  Cured  in  grass-cocks,  accord- 
ing to  our  repeated  directions,*  it  will  be  as  good  as 

*  We  have  this  year  varied  our  practice  somewhat,  and,  we 
think,  with  advantage.  The  grass  cut  in  the  forenoon  has  been 
turned  in  swath  directly  after  dinner,  and  put  into  grass-cocka 
the  same  day.  If  rain  has  threatened,  the  cocks  have  been 
opened  the  second  day,  and  the  hay  finished  ;  but  we  prefer  to 
.eave  them  to  the  third  day,  when  a  shght  opening,  to  evaporate 
the  external  moisture,  suffices.  The  grass  mown  in  the  after- 
noon is  turned  the  same  day  in  swath,  or,  if  not  wilted  enough, 
in  the  forenoon  of  the  second  day,  and  in  the  afternoon  put  into 
cocks.    We  deem  it  important,  1st.  That  clover  should  st^tid 


229  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

when  spread  over  a  barn,  and  more  than  half  the  la- 
bour will  be  saved.  Mr.  B.  thinks  clover  hay  made 
in  the  shade  is  much  better  than  that  made  in  the 
sun.  "  Xhe  next  way  of  curing  this  green  clover," 
says  the  writer,  "  is  with  wheat-straw  that  lias 
been  kept  in  the  barn  for  that  purpose,  by  laying  a 
course  of  hay  and  then  of  straw,  and  so  on  until 
3-ou  have  it  all  secured."  The  importance  of  mow- 
ing the  first  crop  early  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that 
one  of  Mr.  B.'s  neighbours,  who  had  been  persuaded 
to  cut  his  first  crop  some  days  earlier  than  usual, 
acknowledged  that  he  should  obtain  thirty  bushels 
more  clover-seed  than  usual  in  consequence  of  it. 

The  seed-crop  is  gathered  with  care  and  brought 
to  the  bam  as  soon  as  it  is  fit,  that  rain  upon  it,  or 
unnecessary  exposure  to  the  weather,  may  be  avoid- 
ed, both  of  which  materially  impair  the  value  of  the 
butts  or  straw  for  fodder.  The  heads  are  separated 
with  a  flail,  and  the  seed  extracted  by  Robert  Ritten- 
house  &  Go's,  patent  clover  machine.  The  average 
product  in  seed  is  from  four  to  five  bushels  the  acre ; 
which,  at  present  prices,  is  worth  sixty  to  seventy 
dollars  :  a  tolerable  acreable  profit  for  a  second  crop. 
In  regard  to  his  clover  machine,  Mr.  B.  has  cleaned 
four  hundred  bushels  of  seed  with  it,  without  a  dol- 
lar of  expense  in  repairs.  It  is  portable ;  and, 
"  when  there  is  once  a  machine  in  a  neighbourhood," 
says  Mr.  B.,  "I  thmk  the  farmers  will  then  raise 

in  cocks  some  time,  in  order  to  equalize  the  moisture,  to  sweat ; 
that  18,  ihnt  the  moisture  contamed  in  the  thick  steins  may  have 
time  to  disseminate  itself  upon  the  surface,  and  into  the  thin 
leaves  and  blossoms.  If  a  slight  feniieniation  takes  place  in 
the  cocks,  so  much  the  better  ;  as  the  hay,  in  that  case,  is  not 
likely  to  undegu  a  second  fermentation  in  th.e  barn.  2dly. 
'I'hat  the  curing  process  should  be  carried  on,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, without  tne  aid  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  which  cer- 
tainly imp.iir  the  nutritive  propeities  of  the  hay.  Kxpose  a 
lock  ol  clover  two  days  to  the  direct  iiitJuence  of  the  Min'g  rays, 
and  it  becumes  blanched  and  valuelOM,  and  cattle  will  rej«)ct  it. 
^Cond.  CmU. 


CLOVER  :    ITS   USES.  220 

^heir  own  seed,  as  is  the  case  in  my  neighbourhood. 
And  if  they  raise  it  themselves,  they  think  it  costs 
nothing ;  they  then  sow  liberally,  and  get  a  bounti- 
ful return."  The  machine  cost  sixty  dollars  ;  and  it 
would  verily  seem  to  be  worth  more  than  that 
amount  annually  to  the  farmers  of  the  neighbour- . 
hood. 

In  regard  to  the  value  of  clover  in  keeping  up  the 
fertility  of  the  farm,  Mr.  Brewer  considers  it  of  the 
first  consequence  ;  for,  says  he,  "  I  think  I  can  ma- 
nure my  farm  with  clover  cheaper  than  I  can  cart 
manure  from  my  own  barnyard  ;  although  I  have  it 
all  carried  out  in  the  spring  of  the  year  for  my  hoed 
crops,  while  unfermented,  because  1  think  it  of  more 
value  to  have  it  rot  in  the  soil  than  in  the  farmyard. 
I  do  not  wish  to  have  it  understood  that  I  am  an  ad- 
vocate of  the  miserable  practice  of  leaving  the  ma- 
nure in  the  barnyard,  as  many  of  my  neighbouring 
farmers  do,  to  waste  one  half  of  its  best  qualities, 
for  I  have  my  barnyard  thoroughly  cleaned  every 
year." 

One  word  as  to  the  condition  of  the  farm  when  it 
ctinie  under  Mr.  B.'s  management.  The  soil  is  de- 
scribed as  being  a  sandy  loam,  mixed  with  slate 
gravel,  and  most  of  it  very  stony.  When  he  went 
on  to  it,  remarks  he,  in  1830,  "  there  were  about  fifty 
acres  of  cleared  land,  and  it  was  considered  one  of 
the  poorest  farms  in  the  town  by  my  neighbours, 
who  assured  me  I  could  not  get  grass  enough  from 
the  farm  to  keep  one  cow.  There  was  but  two 
acres  of  meadow  upon  it,  and  that  was  too  wet  to 
plough.  But  this  did  not  discourage  me.  I  pur- 
chased two  and  a  half  bushels  of  clover-seed  the 
first  spring,  which  some  of  my  neighbours  thought 
was  enough  to  seed  my  whole  farm,  weeds  and  all ; 
but  I  sowed  it  on  sixteen  acres."  Such  was  Mr. 
Brewer's  begiiming ;  and  the  reader  is  already  ad- 
vised, that  this  spirited  start  has  been  followed  up 
for  eight  years  with  increasing  advantage.     The 


230  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

wheat-crop  has  averaged  from  eighteen  to  twenty^ 
four  bushels  per  acre. 

USE    OF   CLOVER. 

Almost  uniformly,  clover  (with  plaster)  is  used  an 
an  ameliorating  or  enriching  crop ;  yet  the  land  is 
but  little  benefited  thereby.  For,  as  soon  as  the 
clover  has  attained  to  such  a  height  that  cattle  can 
"get  a  good  bite,"  while  the  herbage  is  tender,  and 
before  the  stalk  becomes  in  the  least  indurated,  the 
cattle  are  turned  upon  it,  and  are  continued  there  as 
long  as  they  can  get  a  living.  Then  comes  the  turn 
for  colts  or  sheep,  which  continue  the  spoliation  till 
the  field  is  a  complete  waste,  and  almost  as  barren 
of  herbage  as  the  Libyan  desert.  And  now,  per- 
haps, it  is  time  to  put  in  the  plough  for  a  winter 
crop  ;  so  the  soil  is  turned  over,  and  if  ten  bushels 
of  rye,  or  fifteen  or  twenty  bushels  of  oats  per  acre 
are  obtained,  the  proprietor  is  entirely  satisfied. 

Now  it  strikes  me  that  this  is  a  very  mistaken 
policy.  It  is  true,  the  stock  that  takes  the  first  clip 
fares  most  daintily,  and  the  land  is  somewhat  ben- 
efited by  the  manure  left  upon  the  surface  ;  but,  in 
the  case  of  a  dairy  farm,  where  the  cows  are  often 
driven  a  considerable  distance  from  the  pasture  to 
the  yard,  there  is  a  great  waste  ;  though  many  nev- 
er think  of  that.  But  the  root  of  the  clover  thus 
sheared  of  its  lungs  can  never  attain  to  much  size ; 
and,  as  hardly  a  leaf  or  a  stalk  is  turned  under,  the 
soil  can  be  but  little  benefited  by  the  green  crop ; 
and  if  it  does  not  degenerate,  it  certainly  does  not 
improve. 

About  three  years  since,  in  July,  I  called  on  a 
gentleman  in  the  north  part  of  the  town  where  I  re- 
side, who  makes  use  of  clover,  "  according  to  my 
notion,"  in  the  right  way.  He  went  with  me  over  a 
considerable  portion  of  his  farm,  and  through  fields 
which  he  intended  to  sow  with  wheat  or  rye.  The 
soil  was  a  gravel,  and  by  nature  not  the  most  fertile. 


CLOVER  :    ITS   USES.  231 

In  these  were  horses,  swine,  and  cows,  up  to  their 
eyes  in  clover  in  full  bloom,  and  of  most  luxuriant 
growth  ;  and  it  gave  me  pleasure  of  no  ordinary  de- 
gree to  witness  such  a  feast :  a  feast  for  the  eye,  for 
the  brute,  and  for  the  soil.  I  remarked,  "  Indeed, 
Mr.  T.,  your  stock  fare  sumptuously."  "  Yes,"  was 
his  reply,  "  and  that  is  the  way  I  manure  my  fields. 
When  the  clover  is  pretty  well  rolled  down  (I  don't 
allow  the  cattle  to  eat  it  all  up)  I  go  in  with  my  har- 
row, and  complete  the  levelling  process  by  drawing 
it  in  the  same  direction  that  I  plough,  that  in  the 
latter  operation  the  herbage  may  be  more  complete- 
ly buried."  He  likewise  told  me  that  it  was  by  far 
the  cheapest  manure  he  could  use  ;  and  that,  as  long 
as  he  could  produce  clover  in  such  abundance,  he 
would  not  draw  manure  if  it  were  given  him. 
This  is  carrying  the  principle  to  its  fullest  extent, 
farther  than  I  should  approve ;  but  it  might  have 
been  only  his  extravagant  manner  of  showing  his 
entire  confidence  in  the  system  of  cultivation,  inde- 
pendent of  other  means  of  fertility.  Still  I  very 
much  doubt  his  willingness  to  give  away  his  yard 
manure,  or  to  part  with  it  for  the  market  price ;  and 
I  did  not  observe  that  he  "  summered''''  any.  He 
need  not  have  told  me  that  he  obtained  large  crops  ; 
they  were  splendid ;  for  his  oats  in  adjoining  fields 
proved  it.  By-the-way,  oats  are  the  crop  he  most 
cultivates.  The  land  in  this  region  is  often  plough- 
ed in  the  fall,  and  only  harrowed  (but  that  thorough- 
ly) in  the  spring. 

CLOVER    AND    CLOVER-SEED. 

Clover  is  becoming  of  more  and  more  importance, 
and  the  quantity  sown  is  annually  increasing,  in 
proportion  as  the  new  system  of  husbandry  extends 
among  us.  Its  tap  roots  penetrate  and  loosen  the 
soil ;  its  stems  and  foliage  produce  abundance  of 
artritious  food  for  the  neat  stock  of  the  farm ;  and 
DOth  roots  and  stems,  when  turned  under  by  the 


232 


AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 


plough,  are  highly  enriching  to  the  soil.  It  is  indis- 
pensable in  alternate  husbandry ;  and  we  feel  justi- 
fied in  saying  that  its  liberal  and  judicious  use,  to- 
gether with  gypsum,  upon  many  light  soils,  has  add- 
ed fifty,  one  hundred,  and  even  two  hundred  per 
cent,  to  the  profits  of  their  culture.  Yet  there  are 
a  great  many  districts  of  our  country  in  which  its 
value  is  seemingly  but  little  appreciated,  and  in 
which  its  cultivation  has  been  yet  hardly  begim. 
There  is  scarcely  a  plant  grown  upon  the  farm  that 
returns  to  the  soil  more  of  the  elements  of  fertility; 
affording  almost  a  certainty  that  its  cultivation  will 
continue  to  increase  for  some  years  in  a  progress- 
ive ratio. 

From  this  view  of  the  subject,  it  is  apparent  that 
clover-seed  will  continue  tt)  increase  in  demand  as 
it  has  continued  to  advance  in  price ;  and  that  the 
raising  of  it  for  market  promises  to  be  a  lucrative 
business.  The  dwarf  Southern  clover  will  afford  a 
crop  of  hay  to  be  cut  the  last  of  June,  and  a  crop  of 
seed  to  be  gathered  towards  autumn.  The  price 
of  seed  is  now  from  twelve  to  fifteen  dollars  a  bush- 
el; and  if  we  suppose  the  acre  to  yield  but  five 
bushels,  the  profit  will  be  enormous.  Machines  for 
cleaning  the  seed  are  already  abundant,  and  others 
have  been  introduced  for  gathering  the  heads  in  the 
field.  We  give  below  the  drawing  and  dimensions 
of  one  described  by  Mr.  L'Hommedieu,  in  the  trans- 
actions of  the  old  Agricultural  Society 


PREVENTION    OF    SMUT.  233 

Dimensions. 

1,  2.  The  shafts,  4  feet  4  inches  long,  and  3  feet 
asunder. 

3,  4.  The  handles,  3  feet  long,  and  20  inches  apart. 

5.  The  fingers  or  teeth,  13  inches  long. 

The  wheels  are  16  inches  in  diameter. 

The  machine  is  drawn  by  one  horse,  and  guided 
by  a  man  or  boy.  It  simply  consists  of  an  open 
box,  about  4  feet  square  at  the  bottom  and  about  3 
in  height  on  three  sides.  To  the  forepart,  which  is 
open,  fingers  are  fixed  similar  to  those  of  a  cradle, 
about  13  inches  in  length,  and  so  close  together  as 
to  hold  fast  and  break  off  the  heads  of  the  clover 
stocks  which  catch  between  them,  and  which  are 
thrown  back  into  the  box  as  the  horse  advances. 
The  box  is  fixed  on  an  axletree  supported  by  the 
wheels.  The  driver  raises  or  lowers  the  fingers  of 
the  machine,  so  as  to  take  off  all  the  heads  of  the 
grass ;  and,  as  often  as  the  box  is  filled  with  them, 
they  are  thrown  out,  and  the  horse  goes  on  as  before. 

PREVENTION    OF    SMUT. 

We  extract  the  subjoined  table  from  the  Quarter- 
ly .I'ournal  for  June,  as  particularly  applicable  and 
useful  at  this  season. .  It  gives  the  results  of  trials 
with  various  liquids  as  steeps  for  seed-wheat,  made 
by  Mr.  Bevan,  on  a  sandy  soil  in  Bedfordshire.  The 
columns  in  the  table  marked  A.  contain  the  results 
from  the  steeped  grain  sown,  and  those  marked  B. 
are  the  results  from  smutted  samples. 


284 


AUERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 


— < -^  o  t^  eo  flo  o»  CO  Oi      — -H  »^  oo 

11^ 

X 

§?;s8???3^ 

S  S       CO  ro  ?5  -"0 

OOCtOiOulvODt^        t^^,^ 

< 

CO  o  o 

S^??^S?§    53J!??J?  : 

CO  CO  fo 

<o  —  «  r»  IOCS  w 

•«•■»■  2  "-  oo  J»  « 
—  e«  2  ta  r-;  ♦« 

Hi 

a 

CO  d  ■^ 

—  ■*  pi  r-: 

U^ 

toc>)auf)Oo<z>aoc>  M>r-  tt  n    . 

< 

S  S  S3  ?  '»'  -T* 

I*  e*  .^  w  M  ?5    • 

H 

ai 

—  00Oq>O  —  OCON    '^tOODI^ 

"- ^ 

*:;■" 

oor;<0(N      -npj      eio 

fi"* 

—  N  p»  — 

-;__«_ 

*5J 

•< 

«  CO  t~  o»  o  c» -< 

©©■^ooo    . 

^-^ 

.C'^d 

s'^i 

^^^ 

—  2 

C  b  CO 

*      ■   D. 

■  O   0)  — 

6 

H 
>< 

O 

E 
M 

o  o 

0.0. 
j3   ©"o 

ill 

u  rated 

d  (aquafortis) 
acid  (spirit  of 
c  acid  (oil  of  v 
1  slate 
on  water  . 

a 
3 

2  «  o 
1.2.2 

a  3  a 

B    2    « 

sool 

lime,  sat 
nitric  ac 
muriatic 
sulphuri 
ts  natura 
incomni 

Of 

°-3  3-5  535 
oSEiESe 

e 
o 

c-S 

**  w  » 

»    «    «    « 

-    .    -    .    .    —  J3 

_2  -  - 

b  a 

I  M 


o^ 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  seed  steeped  in  a  pickle  of 
common  salt  was  free  from  smut,  gave  the  greatest 
product  in  good  grain,  and  the  greatest  weight  in 
straw.     This  steep  may  be  used  by  every  farmer. 

The  article  from  which  the  above  table  is  extract- 
ed was  written  by  George  W.  Johnson.  The  writer 
examines  the  erroneous  theories  and  opinions  which 
have  prevailed  as  to  the  origin  or  cause  of  smut  in 
grain,  and,  we  thinlv,  satisfactorily  shows  their  falla- 
cy. Mr.  Johnson  then  proceeds  to  detail  what  he 
considers  correct  knowledge  upon  the  subject,  and 


PREVENTION    OF    SMUT.  235 

quotes  some  of  the  most  eminent  naturalists  m  sup- 
port of  the  opinion,  that  what  passes  by  the  different 
names  of  smut,  dust-brand,  and  burned  corn  is  a  parasit- 
ical fungus,  which  preys  not  only  upon  the  sap,  but 
destroys  the  very  organic  structure  of  the  gram  and 
chaff  upon  which  it  lixes.  Botanists  generally  dis- 
tinguish this  fungus  by  the  name  of  urido  segetum. 
Chymical  analysis  has  shown  it  to  consist,  1st,  of 
about  one  third  of  its  own  weight  t)f  a  green,  buty- 
rous,  fetid,  and  acrid  oil:  2d,  nearly  one  fourth  of  a 
vegeto-animal  substance,  perfectly  similar  to  that 
which  comes  from  putrid  gluten :  3d,  of  a  black  coal, 
one  fifth  of  its  weight,  similar  to  that  which  is  found 
in  all  remnants  of  putrid  organic  compounds  :  4th,  of 
free  phosphoric  acid,  amounting  to  scarcely  more  than 
.004  of  the  smut :  5th,  of  phosphates  of  ammonia, 
magnesia,  and  lime,  in  the  proportion  of  a  few  thou- 
sandths. "  The  contagion  attacks  especially  the 
gluten,  and  precedes,  indeed  prevents,  the  formation 
of  starch."  It  has  also  been  shown  by  Duhamel, 
Kirby,  and  others,  that  the  disease  exists  in  the  af- 
fected plant  before  the  development  of  the  head ; 
that  it  is  propagated  by  minute  seeds,  which  attach 
to  the  kernel,  and  which  are  so  light  as  to  float 
buoyantly  in  a  damp  atmosphere ;  that  the  vitality 
of  these  seeds  is  not  destroyed  by  frost;  but  that 
they  will  contaminate  seed-grain  with  which  they 
come  in  contact  after  being  long  in  the  soil.  In 
early  spring,  when  the  plants  were  but  a  few  inches 
high,  upon  carefully  opening  the  hose  or  blade  which 
covers  the  ear,  M.  Duhamel  found  this  erhbryo  al- 
ready black  and  distempered.  After  quoting  the  re- 
sults of  many  experiments,  besides  those  in  the 
above  table,  made  by  Mr.  Bevan,  Mr.  Johnson  adds : 
"  The  conclusion  from  these  and  many  other  ac- 
cordant experiments  is,  that  washing  the  seed  is  ef- 
fective in  preventing  the  communication  of  the  dis- 
ease to  the  crop.  If  the  washing  were  frequently 
repeated,  or  the  cleansing  made  complete,  by  pass- 


886  AMERICAN    HDSBAMDRT. 

ing  a  continued  stream  through  the  wheat  for  sora* 
hours,  it  is  probable  that  simple  water  might  be  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose  as  effectually  as  any  saline 
solution.  But,  as  this  would  require  more  labour 
than  is  desirable,  and  as  the  salts,  &c.,  employed 
are  beneficial  in  other  ways,  by  protecting  the  seed 
from  vermin,  and  ministering  to  the  future  vigour  of 
the  plants,  steeps  are  generally  and  very  properly 
adopted." 

If  lime  be  employed,  it  is  recommr^ndcd  to  prepare 
it  by  mixing  "one  pound  of  fresh  lime  with  tliree 
gallons  of  boiling  water,  allowing  these  to  stand  for 
two  hours,  and  the  clear  liquid  then  to  be  poured  off 
and  immediately  used.  In  this  liquor  the  wheat 
should  be  soaked  for  twelve  hours,  stirred  twice  or 
thrice  during  the  time,  and  then  mixed  upon  a  floor, 
with  the  powder  maiie  by  pouring  three  gallons 
[pints  1]  of  boiling  water  upon  five  pounds  of  lime." 

Mr.  Johnson  has  had  no  experience  with  lime 
himself;  but  he  has  witnessed  many  experiments 
with  stale  urine  and  a  solution  of  common  salt.  He 
thinks  the  latter  the  most  agreeable  ;  and,  although 
both  were  completely  effective,  he  has  used  the  salt, 
as  being  most  cleanly  as  well  as  convenient.  His 
mode  is  to  wash  the  seed  with  pure  water,  skim  off 
the  floating  light  grains,  and  then  soak  it  twelve 
hours  in  a  pickle  made  with  common  salt,  strong 
enough  to  float  a  hen's  egg.  Mr.  Johnson  is  satis- 
fied, from  experiments  he  made,  and  which  he  details, 
that  the  soil  is  one  source  of  infection,  and  that  salt 
is  an  antidote  to  this  infection ;  and  he  thinks  the 
truth  of  his  opinions  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  "  that 
fields  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea  are  rarely  injured, 
and  never  extensively,  by  the  ravages  of  the  smut. 

WHV    IS    IT    BEST   TO    BURY   MA.NURE  1 

Animal  matters  decompose  with  facility  when 
acted  upon  by  moisture  and  air,  the  greater  propor- 
tion of  their  elementary  parts  making  their  escape 


ON    BURYING    MANURE.  237 

in  various  forms  of  combination,  and  leaving  the 
earths,  alkalis,  and  carbonaceous  matters  remain- 
ing. 

When  this  decomposition  takes  place  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  these  gaseous  compounds,  as 
well  as  the  carbon  (which  there  is  reason  to  believe 
assumes  also  the  gaseous  state  by  combining  with 
oxygen),  may  be  supposed  to  be  partially  or  wholly 
retained  in  the  earth,  to  afford  the  matter  of  nutri- 
tion to  plants. 

Purely  animal  substances,  therefore,  which  thus 
readily  decompose,  do  not  absolutely  require  fer- 
mentation before  they  are  mixed  with  the  soil. 

Vegetable  fibre  is,  under  certain  circumstances,  a 
slowly  decomposing  substance.  When  vegetables 
are  green  and  full  of  juice,  as  all  green  crops  and 
grass  leys,  they  readily  ferment  [hence  the  impro- 
priety of  wasting  these  fertilizing  properties  by 
cross-ploughing] ;  but  when  the  stems  are  dried,  as 
in  the  case  of  straw  and  litter,  they  decompose  with 
slowness,  and  the  mixing  them  with  animal  matter 
hastens  the  putrefactive  fermentation. 

The  principal  animal  matters  which  are  mixed 
with  the  ligneous  fibre  of  the  litter,  and  which  cause 
it  to  undergo  decomposition,  are  the'dung  and  the 
urine  of  the  animals. — Prof.  Low. 

The  practical  lessons  to  be  drawn  from  the  above 
theory  are,  1st,  to  make  your  cattle-yards  concave, 
or  hollow  in  the  middle,  to  retain  the  urine  of  the 
animals,  nearly  a  moiety  of  the  manure :  2dly,  to 
strew  or  feed  your  straw,  stalks,  and  other  litter  in 
the  yard,  to  absorb  the  urine  and  other  liquids  there 
accumulating :  3dly,  to  apply  this  manure  before  it 
has  undergone  much  fermentation,  that  the  soil  may 
absorb  its  gaseous  portions;  and  we  would  add, 
4lhly,  to  apply  it  to  a  hoed  crop,  that  the  weeds  and 
grasses,  the  seeds  of  which  are  blended  with  the 
dung,  iiic»y  be  extirpated  in  the  process  of  after  cul- 
ture. 


238  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 


BUTTER-MAKINO. 

A  nice  process  of  butter-making,  as  practised  by 
Mr.  J.  M.  Weeks,  of  Salisbury,  Vt.,  is  given  in  the 
Yankee  Farmer.  Mr.  W.  makes  three  qualities  of 
butter :  one,  he  says,  worth  38  cents,  being  the  pure 
butyrous  matter,  of  exquisite  flavour ;  the  second, 
worth  19  cents ;  and  the  last,  9  or  10  cents,  a  gluti- 
nous substance,  and  insipid  in  taste.  Mr.  Weeks 
heats  his  milk  after  the  animal  heat  has  passed  from 
it,  but  to  what  temperature  he  does  not  say,  and  then 
sets  his  pans  in  cool,  running  water ;  and,  when  cold, 
they  are  raised  out  of  the  water,  and  the  milk  skim- 
med in  6  to  18  hours.  We  conjecture,  for  Mr.  Weeks 
has  not  told  us,  that  the  first  skifaiming  is  made  be- 
fore the  milk  is  placed  in  the  running  water,  or  per- 
haps before  it  is  heated,  and  the  last  at  the  end  of 
the  18  hours.  The  butter  is  salted  and  worked  when 
it  comes  from  the  churn,  worked  again  the  next  day, 
without  cold  water  in  any  of  the  processes,  and  then 
packed  tight  in  tubs,  lined  with  bags  previously  sat- 
urated with  beeswax,  and  covered  on  the  top  with 
fresh  pickle.  The  great  requisites  in  making  and 
preserving  good  butter  are  : 

1.  That  everything  should  be  cleanly  throughout 
the  process. 

2.  That  the  milk  should  be  kept  at  a  proper  tem- 
perature, say  from  45°  to  65°,  while  the  cream  is 
separating. 

3.  That  the  cream  should  be  taken  off  and  churn- 
ed before  its  quality  is  impaired. 

4.  That  its  temperature  should  be  from  55°  to 
85'^  when  put  into  the  churn,  and  the  churning  should 
oe  moderate  ajid  uniform. 

5.  That  salt  of  the  best  quality,  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity to  suit  the  palate,  shoiUd  be  blended  with  it  at 
the  first  working,  and  the  buttermilk  completely 
separated  from  it  by  the  butter-ladle. 

6.  That  the  working  of  the  butter  should  be  re- 


DRILL  HUSBANDRY.  239 

peated  at  the  end  of  24  hours,  after  the  ualt  has  be- 
-come  completely  dissolved,  when  all  the  liquid 
should  be  pressed  out. 

7.  That  it  should  be  packed  (without  any  addition 
of  salt  to  make  it  weigh)  in  stone  jars,  or  in  wooden 
firkins  or  tubs,  such  as  will  not  impart  to  it  any  taint 
or  bad  flavour,  and  in  such  manner  as  will  totally 
exclude  the  air. 

Butter  made  in  this  way  will  be  of  fine  flavour ; 
and,  if  put  down  and  kept  in  the  manner  here  rec- 
ommended, its  flavour  will  be  preserved  for  an  al- 
most indefinite  period,  provided  it  is  not  exposed  to 
a  temperature  of  over  70°.  Water,  mixed  either 
with  the  milk,  the  cream,  or  the  butter,  and  especial- 
ly soft  water,  adds  nothing  to,  but  materially  injures 
the  flavour.  We  have  no  doubt  that  the  position 
assumed  by  Mr.  Weeks  is  correct,  that  milk  skim- 
med at  three  several  times  will  give  three  qualities 
of  butter — the  cream  taken  off"  first  being  the  richest 
and  most  valuable. 

The  common  remark  of  our  good  dairy- women  is, 
"  my  butter  is  good  enough ;"  and  many  think  so 
who  have  no  very  sufficient  reason  for  such  an  opin- 
ion. But  as  the  principal  object  in  making  butter  is 
gain,  and  as  it  will  sell  according  to  its  intrinsic 
value,  every  one  should  seek  to  improve  its  quality, 
if  not  to  please  themselves,  to  please  their  custom- 
ers, that  they  may  reahze  a  larger  profit. 

DRILL    HUSBANDRY, 

We  have  no  doubt,  will  ultimately  come  mto  vogue 
among  us — we  mean,  in  the  culture  of  wheat  and 
other  grains— though  for  a  long  time  its  progress 
will  be  slow.  At  the  late  Preston  agricultural  meet- 
ing in  England,  the  question  proposed  for  discussion 
was,  "  the  comparative  advantages  of  the  drill  and 
broadcast  systems  of  husbandry."  Mr.  Binns  ably 
advocated  the  drill  system,  and  set  forth  its  advan- 
tages under  the  following  heads. 


S40  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

1.  The  seed  is  delivered  with  regularity. 

2.  It  is  deposited  at  a  proper  rifpth. 

3.  The  weeds,  during  the  growth  of  the  plants, 
are  destroyed  with  great  facility. 

4.  The  plants  cultivated  receive  the  undivided 
benefit  of  the  soil  and  manure,  and  have  not  to  main- 
tain a  constant  struggle  with  weeds. 

5.  The  land,  by  the  process  of  hoeing,  is  under- 
going preparation  for  another  crop. 

fl.  The  necessity  of  summer  fallowing  is  avoided. 

7.  By  admission  of  the  sun  and  air  between  the 
rows,  a  stronger  and  healthier  plant  is  produced, 
and,  of  course,  a  heavier  crop. 

8.  By  stirring  the  soil,  it  is  rendered  more  suscep- 
tible of  benefit  from  the  atmosphere,  imbibing  more 
oxygen,  and  being  both  warmed  and  enriched  by  the 
sun. 

9.  The  roots  shoot  freely  in  a  pulverized  soil. 

10.  By  driUing,  the  farmer  is  enabled  to  have  heav- 
ier crops  of  beans  and  wheat  on  light  land. 

11.  Clover  and  grass  seeds  answer  incomparably 
better  with  the  pulverizatioH- produced  by  hoeing, 
independent  of  clearness  from  weeds. 

12.  The  drills  give  facility  for  depositing  smaller 
portions  of  m&nure  with  greater  eflfect. 

These  advantages  are  all  self-evident  to  a  good 
farmer;  and  it  might  have  been  added,  as  a  thir- 
teenth advantage,  that  driUing  economizes  seed, 
though  Mr.  Binns  rejects  it  on  the  ground  that  if 
the  plants  are  thin,  they  throw  out  side-shoots, 
which  produce  imperfect  grain,  and  ripen  unequally. 
Mr.  B.  affirms  that  fifty-six  bushels  of  wheat  have 
been  raised  on  the  light  soils  of  Norfolk  by  drill  hus- 
bandry. 

The  drills  employed  in  sowing  wheat,  &c.,  are 
drawn  by  a  horse,  and  sow  six  or  eight  rows  at  a 
time  at  the  required  distance,  dropping  and  covering 
the  seed.  The  machine  for  clearing  between  the 
rows  is  also  drawn  by  one  horse,  and  cousists  of  a 


EFFECT  OF  STEEPS  ON  WHEAT.  241 

firame  with  six  hoes  attached  to  it,  which  occupies 
the  same  space  as  the  drill.  The  rate  of  drilling  is 
an  acre  per  hour.  Wheat  is  drilled  at  nine  inches 
between  the  rows,  and  barley  at  seven.  The  horse- 
hoe  is  used  once,  and  the  hand-hoe  twice.  The  ex- 
pense of  weeding  in  England  is  stated  at  two  shil- 
lings (forty-eight  cents)  per  acre. 

EFFECT   OF   STEEPS    ON   WHEAT. 

Mr.  Hathaway's  letter,  published  in  the  June  num- 
ber of  the  Cultivator,  1838,  giving  his  opinion  that 
steeping  Italian  spring  wheat  in  strong  brine  for  a 
length  of  time  is  injurious  to  its  vegetating  principle, 
has  induced  me  to  make  some  experiments  for  my 
own  satisfaction.  The  results  have  not  been  what 
I  anticipated,  and  they  certainly  go  to  prove  that 
gentleman  to  be  correct. 

The  wheat  on  which  I  experimented  was  the  Ital 
ian — the  berry  fair  and  plump.  The  pickle  was  im- 
pregnated with  as  much  salt  as  the  water  would 
dissolve.  Parcels  containing  twenty-five  kernels 
each  were  steeped  at  different  periods  of  time,  placed 
in  moist  earth,  and  marked  in  such  manner  that  they 
might  be  easily  distinguished,  and  were  suffered  to 
remain  undisturbed  until  the  greater  part  of  tliS 
stems  made  their  appearance  above  ground. 

Result  of  First.  Experiment. 
No.  1,  25  kernels,  steeped  5  minutes,  2  did  not  vegetate 
"    2,        do.,  do.     30      do,      2  do. 

"    3,        do.,  do.       1  hour,        4  do. 

"    4,        do.,  do.     18  hours,    12  do 

[2  kernels  missing. 

The  result  of  the  parcel  steeped  18  hours  being 
unexpected,  I  made  another  trial,  which  was  as  fol- 
lows : 

No.  1,  25  kernels,  well  washed  in  brine,  every  kernel  vegetated, 
steeped  4  hours,  2  kernels  did  not  vegetata 
do.      8    do.,    6        do.  do. 

do.    12    do.,  11         do.  do. 

do.   18    do.,  13        do.  do. 


2. 

do. 

3. 

do., 

4. 

do., 

5, 

do., 

I.- 

-T 

242  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRr. 

It  seems  from  the  above,  that  the  injury  sustained 
is  proportioned  to  the  length  of  time  the  grain  has 
been  steeped,  and  that  when  it  has  been  in  the  brine 
18,  or  even  12  hours,  aUnost  one  half  loses  its  vege- 
tative power. 

I  am  fully  satisfied  that  pickUng  and  liming  the 
seed  is  an  infallible  preventive  of  smut  in  the  wheat 
crop  ;  but  I  do  not  think  that  steepiug  for  10,  12,  or 
18  hours  is  necessary.  This  opinion  is  founded  on 
my  own  experience  and  "observation,  as  well  as  the 
long  practice  and  experience  of  others.  My  method 
has  been  to  make  the  brine  as  strong  as  I  could, 
permitting  the  wheat  to  be  no  longer  in  it  than  is 
necessary  for  washing  it,  and  skimming  off  what- 
ever floats  on  the  surface ;  when  taken  out  it  is 
mixed  with  fresh  slaked  lime,  and  sown  soon  after. 
With  this  preparation,  even  when  the  seed  is  im- 
pregnated with  smut  (as  was  the  case  last  year  with 
part  of  the  Italian  wheat  that  I  obtained),  the  crop 
has  been  perfectly  clean.  Liquoring,  as  it  is  called, 
has  been  practised  in  the  wheat-growing  districts  of 
Scotland  for  these  forty  years  past,  and  how  much 
longer  I  do  not  know ;  but  as  long  ago  as  at  that 
period,  good  farmers  would  almost  as  soon  have 
thought  of  throwing  their  seed  into  the  sea  as  of 
sowing  it  without  that  preparation.  Brine  made 
from  salt  or  seawater,  or  otherwise,  and  stale  cham- 
ber-ley, were  used,  the  latter  most  generally.  When 
chamber-ley  was  apphed,  the  usual  method  was  to 
sprinkle  it  on  the  heap  of  grain  until  it  was  well 
wetted,  adding  fresh  slaked  lime,  and  sowing  im- 
mrdiately.  In  the  application  of  brine,  some  steep- 
ed the  seed  for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  and  others 
sprinkled  it.  Without  liquoring,  in  nine  cases  out 
of  ten,  the  crop  was  smutty ;  with  it,  never.  1  will 
conclude  with  a  quotation  corroborative  of  what  I 
have  just  stated.  "  There  is  some  danger  from  the 
first ;  for  if  the  seed  steeped  in  urine  is  not  immedi- 
ately sown,  it  will  infaUibly  lose  its  vegetative  pow- 


STRAWBERRY  CULTURE.  243 

er.  The  second,  viz.,  sprinkling  the  urine  on.  the 
seed,  seems  to  be  the  safest,  if  performed  by  an  at- 
tentive hand  ;  the  last,  brining,  may  do  equally  well, 
if  such  a  quantity  of  salt  be  incorporated  with  the 
water  as  to  render  it  of  sufficient  strength.  But  it 
may  be  remarked,  that  this  last  mode  is  often  ac- 
companied with  smut,  owing,  no  doubt,  to  a  defi- 
ciency of  strength  in  the  pickle ;  whereas  a  single 
head  with  smut  is  rarely  discovered  where  urine 
has  been  used." — Treatise  on  British  Husbandry. 

Jas.  Smealee. 

modes  and  profits  of  strawberry  culture. 
Having  noticed  an  article  in  the  August  number 
of  the  Cultivator,  1838,  on  the  culture  of  strawber- 
ries, to  which  my  attention  has  been  directed  for  a 
number  of  years,  and  wishing  the  public  to  possess 
all  the  light  on  the  subject  which  can  be  obtained,  I 
am  induced  to  communicate  what  Httle  knowledge  I 
have  of  it.  The  kind  generally  cultivated  on  Long 
Island  (where  I  reside)  for  the  supply  of  the  New- 
York  market,  I  believe  to  be  the  early  scarlet ;  and 
of  these  I  have  at  present  about  three  acres  under 
cultivation.  We  generally  transplant,  and  form  our 
new  beds  in  the  beginning  of  May.  Formerly  the 
universal  practice  was  to  plant  in  rows  from  two  to 
two  and  a  half  feet  apart,  the  plants  single  being  left 
single,  and  at  a  distance  of  from  12  to  18  inches  from 
each  other.  My  present  practice,  and  that  of  many 
others,  is  to  plant  them  in  hills  about  three  and  a 
half  or  four  feet  asunder  each  way,  placing  four 
plants  in  a  hill,  two  and  two  together,  about  three 
inches  apart.  By  planting  in  hills  there  is  a  great 
saving  of  labour,  for  it  takes  less  time,  the  plants 
are  more  easily  kept  clean  by  running  the  cultivator 
through  them  both  ways,  and  there  is  less  labour  in 
hoeing;  whereas,  by  the  old  method,  when  planted 
close,  the  cultivator  could  not  be  used  among  them 
at  all,  or,  at  most,  only  one  way.    The  cultivatoi*  is 


244  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

run  through  the  plants  as  late  as  it  can  be  done  wiili. 
out  serious  injury  to  the  runners,  hoeing  them  each 
time;  and  it  is  seldom,  when  judiciously  performed, 
that  they  require  this  operation  over  three  times. 
I  have  always,  in  my  practice,  found  the  plants 
when  properly  managed,  sufficiently  to  cover  the 
ground  to  produce  a  good  crop  of  fruit  the  next  sea- 
son. A  piece,  covering  less  than  half  an  acre,  of 
last  year's  planting,  produced  this  season  over  3000 
baskets,  containing  nearly  a  pint  each,  which  were 
sold  in  the  New-Yoric  markets  for  $200.  This, 
however,  is  an  uncommon  yield,  and  is  seldom  ex- 
celled, or  even  equalled.  New  beds  almost  invaria- 
bly yield  better  than  old  ones,  and  produce  larger 
fruit,  though  the  berries  are  apt  to  be  sandy  after 
showers.  It  took  nearly  two  acres  of  my  old  beds 
to  yield  the  same  quantity  that  the  half  acre  of  jiew 
did.  The  soil  I  prefer  for  strawberries  is  light,  sandy 
land  newly  cleared,  on  which  no  animal  or  vegetable 
manure  has  been  used.  On  land  of  this  kind,  which 
has  been  prepared  by  previous  crops,  and  on  which 
weeds  have  not  been  suffered  to  go  to  seed,  the 
plants  will  last  four  or  five  years,  while  on  old  land 
they  are  seldom  profitable  over  two,  and  often  not 
more  than  one. 

The  greatest  enemy  to  the  beds  is  white  clover, 
which,  in  old  lands,  after  the  first  year's  bearing, 
generally  gets  possession,  and  eradicates  the  plants. 
Land  lately  cleared  is  not  often  troubled  with  this 
grass  :  the  great  danger  here  is  frohi  sorrel,  but  this 
is  less  destructive.  Our  beds  cover  the  whole 
ground  :  there  are  no  alleys,  no  clipping  of  runners, 
no  digging  the  paths,  no  burning  with  straw,  as  rec- 
ommended by  some  gardeners ;  for  it  is  doubtful 
whether  these  operations  would  be  profitable,  and 
pay  cost.  At  all  events,  our  experience  leads  us 
to  adopt  the  plan  I  have  describt^d,  The  only  oper- 
ation which  I  have  found  necessary  and  advantageous 
after  the  first  year,  is  to  pull  up  and  destroy  the 


WOOL  AND  WOOLLEN  MANUFACTURES.  245 

weeds  and  grass,  and  to  run  a  light  harrow  over  old 
beds  early  in  the  spring,  when  matted  too  thick  with 
plants.  As  for  manure,  it  is  not  customary  with  us 
to  put  any  on.  I  once  read  an  account  of  plaster 
being  highly  beneficial,  which  I  tried,  but  it  failed  of 
improving  the  plants.  Lime  might  aid  in  destroying 
sorrel,  but  I  have  not  tried  it. 

Much  has  been  written  about  male  and  female 
plants,  and  of  the  necessity  of  mixing  them  in  the 
beds  to  make  them  fruitful.  Now  all  this  may  be 
necessary  with  some  varieties  ;  but  with  the  one  we 
cultivate  I  can  assure  you  it  is  not :  no  cultivator  in 
my  neighbourhood  {Narrows,  L.  I.),  from  which  the 
New-York  markets  are  principally  supplied,  as  far 
as  I  have  ever  heard,  does  it.  I  once  tried  an  ex- 
periment which  appears  to  me  conclusive.  I  plant- 
ed a  small  bed  in  my  garden  at  the  time  when  the 
fruit  commenced  ripening,  taking  only  such  plants 
as  had  good  and  fair  fruit  on  them,  and  no  others. 
This  bed  produced  the  next  year  abundantly  :  they 
were  all  female  plants,  and  there  were  no  males  in 
their  vicinity  to  impregnate  them.  The  male  and 
female  blossoms  of  this  variety  must  be  on  the  same 
plant,  although,  to  the  eye,  no  difference  is  present- 
ed in  their  appearance.  T.  G.  Bergen. 

STATISTICS    OF    AMERICAN    WOOL    AND    WOOLLEN    MANU- 
FACTURES. 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  number  of 
sheep  and  of  the  woollen  manufactories  in  the  dif- 
ferent states,  the  number  of  pounds  of  wool  pro- 
duced in  each,  and  its  value  at  50  1-2  cents  per  lb., 
which  seems  to  have  been  the  average  price  for  the 
last  ten  years. 


246  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 


8b«p. 

Se«. 

QlUBtilT. 

JMIMt 

Buchioay. 

lb*. 

Mlm, 

Maine  . 

622,619 

24 

2,023,512 

1,021.873 

New- Hampshire  . 

465.179 

43 

1,511,832 

763.475 

Vermont 

1,099,011 

100 

3,571,786 

1,803.751 

Massachusetts 

373,3-i2 

519 

1,213,297 

612,715 

Ifhixle  Island 

81,619 

80 

265,262 

133,957 

Coniieciicut 

265,169 

184 

629,<!99 

410,313 

New  York    . 

4,299,879 

234 

13,974,606 

7,057,176 

New-Jersey'. 

250,000 

20 

812,500 

410,313 

PeniisyluRijia 

1,714,«40 

123 

6,572,580 

2,814,158 

Oelaware 

150,000 

20 

487,500 

246.187 

Maryland 

275,000 

15 

893,750 

451,343 

Virginia 

1,000,000 

3.250,000 

1,641,250 

Ohio     . 

1,711,200 

30 

5,561,400 

2,808,500 

Kentucky     . 

600,000 

1,950,000 

984,750 

Total     .        .    12,907,633     1392      41,917,324      21,159,761 

There  were  imported  in  1S36,  over  and  above  our 
exports,  12,296,249  pounds  of  foreign  wool,  mostly 
of  coarse  quality,  costing  abroad  less  than  eight 
cents  per  pound,  and  not  subject,  therefore,  to  duty. 

Of  this  gross  amount  of  wool,  it  is  estimated  that 
thirty-one  million  pounds  were  worked  up  in  the 
manufactories,  leaving  twelve  million  for  family 
manufacture,  three  million  and  a  half  of  which  are 
supposed  to  be  used  in  New- York,  three  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  two  in  Ohio. 

The  woollen-manufacturing  establishments  in  the 
United  States  are  employed  on  the  following  fabrics, 
viz.:  on  broadcloths, 344 ;  ca.ssimeres,  178;  satinets, 
574;  flannels,  158:  jeans,  linseys,&c., 210-  blankets, 
yarns,  and  hats,  24  ;  carpets,  61. 

Hoosic  has  37,807  sheep,  the  greatest  number  of 
any  town  in  tliis  state  ;  and  Dutchess  county  234,294 
the  greatest  number  of  any  county  in  the  state. 

EXPERIMENT  IN  HARVESTING  CORK. 

In  the  November  number  of  the  Cultivator,  1838, 
we  gave  the  result  of  an  experiment  in  harvesting 
corn,  going  to  show  that  it  is  better  to  cut  it  up  than 
to  top  it.  We  now  give  the  result  of  another  es 
periment  of  the  same  kind. 


EXPSRIMENT  IN  HARVESTING  CORN.   247 

III  the  first  week  of  September  we  went  with  two 
neighbours  into  our  cornfield,  where  our  men  were 
cutting  up  corn,  and  caused  36  hills  to  be  cut  up,  of 
the  fair  average  quality  of  the  field,  and  stocked 
separately  :  adjoining  which,  36  hills  were  topped  in 
the  usual  way,  and  other  36  hills,  immediately  ad- 
joining the  last,  were  left  to  ripen  upon  the  entire 
.stock.  On  the  23d  of  September  we  proceeded  to 
pick,  husk,  and  weigh  the  corn  on  the  several  par- 
cels.    The  result  was  as  follows  : 

No.  1,  cut  up,  had  126  ears,  which  weighed  56§  lbs. 
"  2,  topped,     "    127    "         "  "        52  lbs.    2  oz. 

"  3,  standing, "    125    "         "  "        52  lbs.  10  oz. 

We  found  on  trial  the  same  evening,  that  it  re- 
quired 78  lbs.  of  ears  to  give  a  bushel  of  shelled 
corn.  The  field  was  planted  at  exactly  three  feet 
between  the  rows,  and  at  about  two  feet  four  inches 
in  the  rows ;  but,  assuming  that  the  distance  was 
three  by  two  and  a  half  feet,  it  would  give  to  the 
acre  5808  hills  ;  and  there  probably  were  not  20  hills 
deficient  in  five  acres.  With  these  data,  the  pro- 
duct on  an  acre,  under  the  different  modes  of  har- 
vesting, would  be  as  follows,  omitting  fractions  : 

No.  1  would  give  9274  lbs.,  or  119  bushels. 
"   2  "  84091  ..      I.  108       " 

"   3  "  8490    "      "  109       " 

Although  the  parcels  selected  were  supposed  to 
be  similar,  it  was  perceived,  after  the  corn  was 
gathered,  that  an  apple-tree,  casting  a  shade  from 
six  to  seven  feet  broad,  stood  in  No.  3 — the  whole 
field  being  a  young  orchard — which  undoubtedly  had 
an  influence  in  lessening  the  product  of  that  parcel 

In  regard  to  the  condition  of  the  grain  in  the  dif- 
ferent parcels,  that  of  No.  1,  which  had  been  cut  up 
and  stooked,  was  unquestionably  the  best:  it  was 
dry,  sound,  and  bright ;  while  much  of  Nos.  2  and  3, 
which  had  been  topped  or  left  standing  entire,  had 
fallen  upon  the  ground,  was  wot  or  mouldy,  and 


248  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY.    • 

some  of  it  had  actually  grown.  The  difference  in 
the  fodder  was  still  more  palpably  in  favour  of  No. 
1 ;  it  evidently  exceeding  in  value  either  of  the  other 
parcels  more  than  one  half. 

In  an  experiment  made  by  us  last  year,  the  loss 
in  lopping  over  cutting  up  was  found  to  be  about  six 
bushels  to  the  acre ;  in  this  last  experiment  it  ap- 
pears to  be  eleven  bushels  to  the  acre.  The  nuni-> 
ber  of  ears  and  the  product  are  less  this  year  than 
the  last,  owing  to  the  drought.  None  of  the  suck- 
ers produced  ears  this  year,  though  many  produced 
them  last. 

This  experiment  confirms  us  in  the  opinion  we 
have  long  entertained,  that  there  is  a  prodigious 
waste,  both  of  corn  and  forage,  and,  we  insist,  of  la- 
bour also,  in  the  still  common  practice  of  topping 
corn.  And  we  again  beg  those  who  remain  incred- 
ulous in  this  matter  to  make  the  experiment,  as  we 
have  repeatedly  done,  and  satisfy  themselves.  Say 
there  are  300,000  acres  of  corn  cultivated  in  this 
state,  and  that  the  loss  by  topping  is  only  five  bush- 
els to  the  acre,  the  aggregate  loss  would  amount  to 
1,500,000  bushels,  equal  in  value  to  one  milhon  of 
dollars  annually,  to  say  nothing  of  the  loss  in  labour 
and  forage. 

The  reason  why  topped  com  produces  less  than 
that  which  is  cut  up,  although  often  stated,  is  here 
repeated:  the  topped  corn  is  deprivedof  its  elabo- 
rating organs — its  lungs — the  leaves  above  the 
grain ;  and,  of  course,  receives  no  farther  accession 
of  growth,  or  but  very  little,  while  the  corn  that  is 
cut  up  retains  these  organs,  which  continue  to  send 
down  nourishment  to  the  grain  for  some  days 
through  the  green,  succulent  stocks.  Any  fanner 
may  readily  satisfy  himself  that  leaves  are  indispen- 
sable to  growth,  by  a  simple  and  easy  experiment : 
let  him  plutk  all  the  leaves  from  a  fruit-bearing 
branch  of  an  apple,  plum,  or  other  fruit-tree,  at  any 
stage  of  growth  of  the  fruit,  and  he  will  find  that  the 


CULTIVATION    OF    CUCUMBERS.  249 

j.ju  Mn  such  limb  will  neither  grow  nor  acquire  its 

y  il\u  flavour,  tliough  it  may  change  its  colour. 

CULTIVATION    OF    CUCUMBERS. 

My  object  in  this  article  is  to  describe  the  manner 
in  which  cucumbers  are  cultivated  on  Long  Island 
for  the  supply  of  the  New- York  markets.  I  would 
premise,  that  the  kind  of  cucumber  grown  is  suited 
to  field-culture,  and  that  the  great  object  is  to  have 
good  fruit,  and  as  early  as  possible,  for  two  or  three 
days  make  a  great  difference  in  its  value  in  market. 

Cucumbers  will  grow  on  any  good  soil ;  but,  to 
have  them  early,  we  require  one  that  is  rich  and 
sandy,  and  of  a  dark  colour — yellow  and  light-col- 
oured soils  being  later.  The  field  should,  if  possi- 
ble, be  protected  from  the  south  and  northwest 
winds,  and  be  situated  near  the  bay  or  river,  where 
there  is  always  less  danger  from  late  frosts.  The 
south  winds  with  us,  in  May  and  June,  retard  vege- 
tation more  than  any  other,  in  consequence  of  their 
being  chilly  and  cool,  from  blowing  over  the  ocean. 

Ground  intended  for  cucumbers  we  prefer  plough- 
ing in  August  or  the  beginning  of  September  of  the 
preceding  year,  and  sowing  it  with  rye  :  the  pasture 
which  this  produces  pays  for  the  labour;  and  its 
other  advantages  are,  the  prevention  of  weeds  going 
to  seed  to  trouble  us  in  the  spring ;  the  soil  not 
blowing  about  in  the  winter,  especially  on  the  knolls, 
nor  being  so  liable  to  blow  when  ploughed  in  the 
spring,  on,  account  of  the  roots  of  the  plants,  and  the 
sustenance  afforded  to  the  crop  by  the  decay  of  the 
rye.  Previous  to  ploughing  for  the  crop,  there 
should  be  spread  seven  two-horse  loads  of  street  or 
horse  manure  to  the  acre ;  but  if  the  soil  is  poor, 
more  will  be  necessary,  and  the  ploughing  should 
take  place  immediately  after  the  spreading.  The 
ground  is  then  harrowed  over  two  or  three  times 
until  it  is  quite  mellow,  furrowed  shallow  with  a 
plough  into  hills  foiir  and  a  half  feet  apart,  half  a 
I.— U 


250  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

shovel  of  manure  dropped  in  each  hill,  which  is  then 
flattened  down  with  a  hoe,  and  covered  about  an 
inch  thick  with  fine  soil.  Short  hog-manure,  carted 
out  of  the  pen  the  preceding  fall,  and  cut  over  once 
or  twice  early  in  the  spring,  and  made  fine,  is  pre- 
ferred for  the  hills ;  but  this  not  being  in  general 
sufficiently  abundant,  we  procure  from  New- York 
in  the  fall  the  manure  of  cows  fed  on  distillers' 
slops,  mixed  with  that  of  horses,  so  as  to  make  it 
sufficiently  firm  to  handle  with  a  fork,  and  mix  it 
with  the  hog-manure.  The  manure  should  be  cool, 
for  fermentation  in  the  hills  is  injurious  to  the  plants. 
The  sooner  the  seed  is  planted  after  ploughing, 
the  better :  the  time  of  planting  depends  upon  the 
forwardness  of  the  season,  and  it  is  generally  com- 
menced when  single  apricot  blossoms  are  open,  but 
some  seasons  earlier.  About  a  week  is  occupied  in 
putting  in  the  first  seed,  and  nearly  the  same  period 
in  planting  over  the  second  and  third  times.  The 
casualties  to  which  the  seed  and  plants  are  subject, 
induces  us  to  continue  putting  in  seed  almost  every 
day  for  this  space  of  time,  so  as  to  make  sure  work. 
It  sometimes  happens,  when  the  weather  has  been 
unfavourable,  that  every  hill  in  some  fields  is  plant- 
ed over  the  third,  and  even  single  hills  the  fourth, 
time.  I  prefer  spreading  the  first  seed  in  the  south 
half  of  the  hills,  the  second  planting  jn  the  north- 
west, and  the  third  in  the  northeast  sides  :  if  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  plant  the  fourth  time,  I  put  the 
seed  in  the  south  half,  where  the  first  ^ed  is  by 
that  time  rotten.  If  this  plan  is  properly  followed, 
the  different  plantings  will  not  interfere  with  each 
other.  We  generally  put  in  from  thirty  to  forty 
seeds  each  time,  and  cover  them  with  fine  soil  from 
three  quarters  to  an  inch  deep.  Sprouting  the  seed 
previous  to  planting  does  not  succeed  well  early  in 
the  season,  though  it  sometimes  answers  well,  when 
the  weather  is  favourable,  in  the  latter  part.  Cu- 
cumber-seed is  the  most  tender  of  the  vine  kind. 


CULTIVATION  OF  CUCUMBERS.  251 

for  if,  after  planting  at  the  usual  depth,  wet  weather 
should  follow,  it  is  almost  sure  to  rot ;  if  the  weath- 
er is  dry,  the  seed  dries  out ;  if,  when  favourable  to 
their  vegetation,  and  the  plants  have  advanced  so  as 
to  be  breaking  ground,  a  storm  should  occur,  they 
generally  perish :  a  northeaster  of  three  or  four 
days'  continuance  destroys  the  plants  when  young, 
and,  in  some  instances,  when  more  than  a  week 
old ;  if  they  are  up  too  early,  a  late  frost  is  apt  to 
sweep  them  clean.  Seed,  to  vegetate,  requires  to 
be  near  the  surface  of  the  wet  soil,  not  buried  deep 
in  it :  our  ignorance  of  the  weather  which  will  fol- 
low after  planting  causes  most  of  our  errors  ;  when 
planted  in  a  heavy  soil,  the  seed  is  less  liable  to  rot 
and  dry  out  than  in  a  sandy  one,  but  the  fruit  is  later. 
If  it  happens  that  there  are  more  plants  in  a  hill  than 
we  require,  we  find  it  an  easy  matter  to  eradicate 
them  with  the  hoe  and  fingers ;  but  it  is  not  so  easy 
to  place  them  in  the  hills  when  deficient. 

When  the  first  rough  leaves  of  the  plants  are 
about  the  size  of  a  twenty-five  cent  piece,  a  cultiva- 
tor is  run  through  the  rows  both  ways,  and  they 
receive  the  first  hoeing :  the  plants  are  also  thinned 
out,  so  as  not  to  crowd  each  other.  In  hoeing,  the 
soil  between  the  plants  should  not  be  disturbed ; 
large  weeds  (if  there  are  such)  should  be  pulled  out, 
fine  soil  drawn  around  the  plants  up  to  the  seed- 
leaves,  so  as  to  cover  the  small  weeds,  and  the  hill 
made  flat,  and  not  concave.  We  are  careful  not  to 
hoe  while  «he  plants  are  very  young  ;  for,  if  a  storm 
should  occur  shortly  after  the  operation  has  been 
performed,  the  hills  soak  in  too  nmch  water,  which 
is  injurious.  Ten  or  twelve  days  after  the  first  hoe- 
ing, the  plants,  if  good,  are  thinned  to  six  or  eight  in 
a  hill,  leaving  the  largest  ones,  and,  if  possible,  three 
or  four  inches  apart.  About  eighteen  days  after  the 
first  hoeing,  or  about  the  time  when  single  blossoms 
open,  we  run  a  one-horse  plough  twice  through  a 
row  each  way  (if  the  ground  is  hard,  three  times), 


AMERiCAN  HUSBANDRY. 

throwing  the  furrow  from  the  hills,  and  then  com 
mence  the  second  hoeing,  which  is  performed  in  the 
same  maimer  as  the  first,  care  being  taken  not  to 
earth  up  higher  than  the  seed-leaves,  and  to  so  ape 
out  the  crust  between  the  plants  if  the  ground  is 
hard  or  covered  with  weeds  :  if  the  plants  are  fair, 
they  are  thinned  down  to  five  in  a  hill. 

When  the  vines  extend  so  that  single  ones  meet 
each  other  between  the  hills,  to  prevent  injuring 
them,  they  are  carefully  laid  aside  by  hand,  or  with 
a  short  stick,  and  the  cultivator  is  for  the  last  time 
run  once  through  the  rows  each  way.  They  then 
receive  the  third  and  last  hoeing,  the  ground  being 
.oosened  and  drawn  up  around  the  hills  with  the 
hoe,  and  broken  between  the  plants  with  the  fingers. 
It  is  customary  to  leave  iive  plants  in  a  hill,  standing 
from  four  to  five  inches  apart,  but  some  reduce  them 
to  four :  1  have  made  no  experiments  to  test  which 
is  the  best. 

Cucumber-vines  will  yield  fruit  about  eight  weeks, 
and  the  fields  are  picked  over  at  least  every  second, 
and  sometimes  every  day.  In  picking,  a  light  stick, 
with  a  crosspiece  framed  to  it,  so  as  to  resemble 
the  letter  T,  is  made  use  of  to  push  the  leaves  aside, 
the  more  readily  to  discover  the  fruit. 

The  insects  which  trouble  and  destroy  the  plants 
are  the  black  worm  and  striped  bugs :  the  first  are 
apt  to  be  numerous  in  ground  which  was  occupied 
the  preceding  year  with  red  cl(Jver ;  they  cut  off  the 
plants  at  or  just  above  the  surface  in  the.niglit,  and 
are  generally  hunted  out  and  destroyed  early  in  the 
morning,  when  their  burrowing  is  fresh,  and  they 
lay  near  the  surface :  the  striped  bug  or  yellow  fly 
eats  the  plants  in  the  daytime,  and  is  sometimes 
veiy  destructive  on  land  where  a  crust  is  formed  on 
the  surface,  which,  being  raised  up  by  the  younj 
plants,  affords  them  a  harboQr.  The  best  remedy 
IS  to  catch  and  destroy  them  with  the  fingers  in  the 
morning,  when  the  dew  i$>-  on  them  and  they  are 


THE  CIRCUMSCRIBED  FARMER.  253 

chilled,  which  prevents  their  flying  and  escaping  as 
freely  as  when  the  sun  has  warmed  them.  Sandy 
land,  having  no  crust  to  shelter  these  pests,  is  gen- 
erally exempt  from  their  depredations. 

We  are  acquainted  with  the  system  of  rotation  of 
crops,  and  it  has  been  practised  among  our  farmers 
for  years;  but  cucumbers,  as  well  as  some  other 
vegetables,  do  not  seem  to  require  it.  I  have  a 
piece  of  about  half  an  acre,  on  which  I  have  culti- 
vated them  for  the  last  ten  successive  years,  plough- 
ing in  the  usual  quantity  of  street-manure  every 
second  year,  and  they  have  flourished  as  well  as  on 
the  adjoining  groimd,  which  has  been  similarly  ma- 
nured, and  on  which  the  crops  have  been  changed. 

The  following  is  the  number  of  hills  planted,  their 
produce,  and  the  amount  of  sales  for  the  last  four 
years,  viz. : 


Tesir. 

Hills  pluted. 

Cuciunberi  mM. 

JjnnuDt  rreeived. 

1835       . 

.        6000       . 

.      104,965 

.    8823  84 

1836       . 

.       6600      . 

99,670      . 

.      820  96 

1«37       . 

.       7370      . 

.      130.735      . 

532  00 

1838       . 

.       7110      . 

.      118,600      . 

.       734  87i 

During  each  of  these  years  large  quantities  of 
cuUings,  and,  when  unsaleable,  good  cucumbers, 
were  fed  to  the  hogs  and  cattle,  of  which  no  ac- 
count was  kept.  Tunis  G.  Bkrgen. 

Narrows,  L.  I ,  October,  1838. 

THE   ^CCMSCRIBED    FARMER. 

By  this  we  mean  such  as  possess  a  hmited  capi 
tal,  and  S^  limited  desire  for  improvement,  except  in 
their  own  way ;  such  as  decline  taking  an  agricul- 
tural paper,  because  it  teaches  nothing,  they  say, 
that  is  adapted  to  their  practice  or  that  is  graduated 
to  their  scale  ;  because,  in  fact,  it  is  not  oral,  or  de- 
livered by  word  of  mouth,  but  has  been  subjected  to 
the  operation  of  the  printing-press. 

Let  us  ask  these  gentlemen,  if  they  were  disposed 
to  have  their  son  become  a  first-rate  farmer,  wheth- 


254  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

er  they  would  select  a  teacher  of  circumscribed 
knowledge,  who  followed  the  practices  of  the  last 
century,  and  knew  only  how  to  kill  land,  or  one  who 
was  famihar  with  all  the  improvements  of  the  age. 
and  whose  thrift  in  business  was  a  guarantee  that 
he  worked  it  right  ?  Now  the  agricultural  journal  is 
to  the  circumscribed  farmer  what  the  good  teachei 
would  be  to  the  boy,  an  instructer  in  the  improve- 
ments and  best  practices  in  his  business,  written  bj 
chose  who  have  made  and  adopted  them,  and  have 
profited  by  them  ;  and  for  the  particular  benefit  of 
those  who  have  limited  means,  or  cannot  go  abroad 
for  the  information  they  need.  The  modern  im- 
provements in  farming  go  to  economize  labour,  or, 
rather,  to  render  labour  more  productive  and  profit- 
able, and  to  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil ;  two 
objects  of  as  much  or  more  importance  to  the  cir- 
cumscribed farmer  than  to  one  of  more  extended 
means.  The  man  who  takes  an  agricultural  journal 
profits  by  the  experience  of  hundreds ;  while  he 
who  takes  none  can  profit  only  from  his  owm,  and 
that,  perhaps,  of  a  few  neighbours.  The  adage 
teaches  that  two  heads  are  better  than  one,  the 
world  over. 

These  remarks  are  preliminary  to  some  extracts 
we  are  about  to  make  from  John  Lorain,  a  philoso- 
pher and  a  first-rate  farmer,  written  for  the  special 
instruction  of  circumscribed  farmers,  to  whose  no- 
tice they  are  respectfully  recommbnded. 

•'  In  this  country  land  is  very  cheap :  an  excellent 
ready-cash  market  for  the  produce  of  the*  soil  gen- 
erally prevails.  This  offers  every  rational  encour- 
agement to  the  poor  but  industrious  farmer,  who 
depends  principally  on  his  own  labour  and  that  of 
his  family  for  cultivating  the  soil  occupied  by  him. 
He  is  but  little  affected  by  the  high  price  of  labour, 
or  the  idleness  and  insolence  of  workmen,  which 
take  place  in  every  counirj'  where  labour  is  scarce, 
unless  the  laws  be  oppressively  severe. 


THK  CIRCUMSCRIBED  FARMER.  255 

"  The  principal  reason  why  this  class  of  farmers 
so  seldom  become  wealtliy,  and  but  too  frequently 
continue  poor,  is  the  desire  of  immediate  returns 
from  cropping,  and  the  mistaken  idea  that  the  prof- 
its to  be  derived  from  rearing  hve-stock  progress 
too  slowly  to  answer  their  purposes.  This  induces 
them  to  crop  the  soil  yearly,  with  but  little  attention 
to  grass  or  an  increase  of  cattle,  until  their  grounds 
become  so  much  exhausted  that  rest  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  procure  crops  worth  gathering.  The 
soil  being  greatly  impoverished,  and  the  seeds  of  the 
grasses  destroyed,  as  far  as  perpetual  ploughing  and 
cropping  can  effect  this  ruinous  purpose,  the  grounds 
rest  with  no  other  covering  but  that  of  some  scat- 
tering and  debilitated  grass  and  weeds.  This  ex- 
poses the  soil  to  the  very  injurious  action  of  the  sun, 
wind,  washing  rains,  and  melting  snows.  "When 
such  grounds  are  ploughed  for  crops,  instead  of 
being  richly  stored  with  grass-roots,  and  well  cov- 
ered by  their  tops,  scarcely  any  vegetation  is  found 
to  replenish  them,  or  to  nourish  the  crops  grown  on 
them. 

"  These  ruinous  practices  naturally  introduce  pov- 
erty of  soil,  and  its  inseparable  companion,  poverty 
of  purse.  This,  however,  is  not  all :  it  entails  on 
posterity  the  wretchedness  introduced  by  their  in- 
considerate forefathers,  or  an  Herculean  task  to 
counteract  the  curse  of  poverty  which  their  negli- 
gence has  produced.  Whether  Satan  is  also  the  in- 
stigator of  this  evil  I  do  not  presume  to  determine  ; 
but  certain  I  am  that  it  is  much  greater  (so  far  as 
farming  is  concerned)  than  the  curse  entailed  on  the 
soil  by  the  fall  of  Adam.  That  seems  to  consist 
simply  in  brambles  and  thorns,  including  with  these 
such  other  vegetation  as  would  compel  man  to  earn 
hie  bread  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow.  This  curse,  we 
may  all  see,  is  irrevocable  ;  but  we  may  also,  at  the 
same  time,  observe,  that  if  man  complies  with  Heav 
en's  mild  decree,  and  removes  those  obstacles  to  the 


256  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY 

growth  of  plants  which  better  suit  his  purpose,  agn- 
cullure  flourishes,  and  his  rational  wants  are  abun- 
dantly supplied. 

"  But  when  the  hand  of  folly  inflicts  the  additional 
curse  of  poverty  on  the  soil,  this  insatiable  monster, 
like  Aaron's  serpent,  swallows  up  all  the  rest.  Even 
brambles,  thorns,  &c.  (the  mild  chastisement  of 
Heaven),  cannot  prosper  where  poverty  has  obtain- 
ed dominion  over  the  soil,  as  may  be  readily  seen ; 
for  these,  and  all  other  vegetation  on  such  grounds, 
look  sallow,  starved,  and  debilitated. 

"  That  man  is  inexcusable,  and  ought  to  be  pun- 
ished for  this  sin  against  common  sense,  himself, 
his  posterity,  and  the  community  in  which  he  re- 
sides, is  evident. 

"  Before  this  inconsiderate  being  enters  the  for- 
est, glade,  or  prairie,  nature  has  been  for  ages  en- 
riching the  soil  for  his  use.  This  fertility  might  be 
preserved  and  increased,  even  by  the  circumscribed 
farmer,  if  a  system  of  agriculture  calculated  to  keep 
the  ground  fully  replenished  with  decaying  animal 
and  vegetable  matter  were  practised,  and  due  at- 
tention paid  to  the  augmentation  of  livestock  in 
proportion  to  increased  ability,  instead  of  the  ruin- 
ous practice  of  perpetual  ploughing  and  cropping. 

"  Reason  alone  demonstrates  this  interesting  fact. 
It  has  also  been  clearly  shown  by  actual  practice 
in  almost  every  neighbourhood — by  the  successful 
enterprise  of  farmers  who  commenced  their  busi- 
ness on  lands  bought  on  credit,  and  covered  with 
timber,  without  any  buildings  on  them,  and  with 
not  more  than  a  pair  of  working  cattle,  and  cows 
barely  sufficient  to  supply  the  family  with  butter 
and  milk.  Nay,  more  :  some  who  were  not  half  as 
well  off  as  this  have  paid  for  their  land,  acquired 
an  extensive  stock  of  cattle,  and  become  wealthy, 
though  their  mode  of  management  was  very  inferior 
to  that  which  has  been  proposed.  They,  however, 
increased  their  livestock  in  full  proportion  to  the 


ON  THE  APPLICATION  OF  MANURES.        257 

means  furnished  by  the  system  o/.'  management  em- 
ployed by  them. 

"  From  first  to  last,  they  have  been  enabled  to 
live  better,  and  far  more  independently,  than  those 
who  rehed  principally  on  the  plough.  The  cause 
of  this  is  evident :  milk,  butter,  cheese,  wool,  meat, 
hides,  and  manure,  are  continually  increasing.  It  is 
true  that  but  little  manure  could  be  obtained  in  the 
beginning :  that  little,  however,  was  spread,  the  pro- 
duct was  greatly  increased,  as  was  also  the  fertility 
of  the  soil  for  a  succeeding  crop,  and  the  grasses 
following  it.  Where  is  plenty  of  good  grasses  and 
hay,  young  cattle  will  grow  as  much  or  more  in  one 
year  than  they  do  in  two  when  kept  on  pasture  fed 
bare  during  summer,  and  on  straw  through  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  winter. 

"  It  is  proper  to  remark,  that,  although  many  cir- 
cumscribed farmers  make  considerable  progress  in 
increasing  their  livestock,  their  laudable  enterprise 
is  too  often  suddenly  checked  before  they  obtain 
half  the  number  of  domesticated  animals  necessary 
to  the  proper  cultivation  of  their  grounds. 

"  This  evil  originates  in  the  prevailing  error,  that 
huge  piles  of  stone  and  mortar,  or  of  boards  and 
scantling,  are  the  best  means  that  can  be  pursued  by 
the  cultivator  to  improve  his  farm.  Hence  it  is  that 
we  see,  almost  in  every  part  of  Pennsylvania  where 
it  is  possible  to  effect  this  mistaken  improvement, 
extensive  banis  and  dwelling-houses  standing  on 
farms  where  we  do  not  observe  half  the  quantity  of 
grass  or  number  of  caf  tie  necessary  for  the  proper 
cultivation  of  the  surrounding  soil." 

ON   THE    APPLICATION   OF   MANCBES. 

Whether  by  the  term  manure  be  understood  all 
things  commonly  so  called,  or  only  putrescent  sub- 
stances, I  have  had  but  one  opinion  for  a  long  time 
m  regard  to  their  application,  and  this  has  been  con- 
firmed by  all  my  subsequent  experience,  each  year 


258  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

adding  something  to  the  great  mass  of  consentane- 
ous facts.  When  my  attention  was  first  turned  to 
this  subject  (some  thirty-five  or  forty  years  ago),  I 
had  adopted,  but  witliout  examination,  the  notion  at 
that  time  most  common  among  us,  tliat  it  was  best 
to  let  all  putrescent  manures  be  well  rotted  first, 
and  then  bury  them  deep,  either  by  the  plough, 
spade,  or  hoe.  This  notion,  like  the  common  law, 
was  so  old,  that  "  the  memory  of  man  extended  not 
to  the  contrary  ;"  but,  happily  for  us  all,  the  revolu- 
tion had  broken  the  entail  of  opinions  as  well  as  of 
landed  estates,  and  left  us  at  liberty  to  think  and  act 
for  ourselves.  The  natural  consequence  of  this  in- 
creased freedom  was  the  introduction  of  many  new 
practices  in  the  arts  as  well  as  in  government ;  and 
agriculture  came  in  for  some  small  share  of  these 
benefits.  Among  them  was  the  application  of  pu- 
trescent manures  to  the  surface,  and  in  a  much  less 
fermented  state  than  had  ever  been  •  tried  before. 
But  so  dreadfully  afraid  were  the  first  experimenters 
of  the  formidable  laugh  of  that  once  numerous  fam- 
ily, "  The  Goodenoughs,"  that  they  made  their  trials, 
as  it  were,  by  stealth ;  and,  consequently,  the  results 
remained  for  a  long  time  unknown,  except  to  a  few. 
I  happened  to  be  among  this  small  number,  and 
could  not  long  resist  the  evidence  of  my  senses,  al- 
though I  must  confess  that  at  first  it  seemed  to  me 
a  sort  of  sacrilege  even  to  doubt,  and  still  more  to 
act,  in  direct  opposition  to  an  opinion  which,  for 
aught  I  know,  had  descended  from  Triptolemus  him- 
self. By  degrees,  however,  ray  courage  waxed 
stronger  and  stronger  every  year,  until  I  felt  myself 
brave  enough  to  commence  the  following  experi- 
ment, which  several  old  farmers,  in  whose  veracity 
I  perfectly  confided,  had  assured  me  they  had  often 
tried,  and  always  with  the  result  which  I  am  aboat 
to  report  in  my  own  case. 

I  began  penning  my  cattle  late  in  the  spring,  and 
continued  it  until  frost  in  pens  of  the  same  size. 


ON  THE  APPLICATION  OF  MANURES.        259 

moved  at  regular  intervals  of  time,  and  containing 
the  same  number  of  cattle  during  the  whole  period. 
These  pens  were  alternately  ploughed  and  left  un- 
ploughed  until  the  following  spring,  when  all  were 
planted  in  corn,  immediately  followed  by  wheat. 
The  superiority  of  both  crops  on  all  the  pens  which 
had  remained  unploughed  for  so  many  months  after 
the  cattle  had  manured  them,  was  just  as  distinctly 
marked  as  if  the  dividing  fences  had  continued 
standing:  it  was  too  plain  to  admit  even  of  the 
slightest  doubt.  A  near  neighbour,  a  young  farmer, 
had  made  the  same  experiment  on  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent soil  the  year  before,  but  with  results  precisely 
the  same.  Similar  trials  I  myself  have  made,  and 
seen  made  by  others,  with  dry  straw,  alternately 
ploughed  in  as  soon  as  spread,  and  left  on  the  sur- 
face until  the  next  spring.  In  every  case  the  last 
method  appeared  to  be  the  best,  as  far  as  the  fol- 
lowing crop  could  prove  it.  The  same  experiment 
has  been  made  by  myself  and  others  with  manure 
from  the  horse-stables  and  winter-farm  pens,  con- 
sisting of  much  unrotted  corn  offal,  and,  without  a 
solitary  exception  seen  or  heard  of  by  me,  the  sur- 
face application,  after  the  com  was  planted,  pro- 
duced most  manifestly  the  best  crop.  I  pon  these 
numerous  concurrent  and  undeniable  facts  my  opin- 
ion has  been  founded,  that  it  is  best  to  apply  manures 
on  the  surface  of  land ;  nor  is  it  likely  to  change  un- 
til I  see  a  still  greater  number,  equally  well  authen- 
ticated, on  the  opposite  side  :  up  to  the  present  time 
I  have  not  heard  of  a  solitary  one.  True  it  is  that 
I  have  read  many  ingenious,  fine-spun  arguments  in 
opposition  to  the  opinion  which  I  hold  in  common 
with  numerous  other  agriculturists,  but  no  proofs 
whatever  have  accompanied  them,  and  therefore  I 
must  remain  incredulous  until  they  are  sustained 
and  corroborated  by  such  facts  as  should  always  be 
deemed  indispensable  to  establish  any  practice  what- 
ever in  any  of  the  various  branches  of  husbandry. 


260  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY, 

To  collect  these  facts  is  a  slow  and  tedious  process, 
not  very  flattering  to  that  pride  of  opinion  which 
delights  in  speculative  theories,  and  which  sickeng 
at  the  thought  of  the  labour  necessary  to  make  and 
record  accurate  experiments  in  agriculture.     In  no 
other  way,  1  think,  can  we  account  for  those  differ- 
ences of  opinion  as  to  matters  of  practice  which  are 
often  found  among  our  brethren  where  all  the  facts 
are  on  one  side.    But  unwillingness  to  believe  in 
that  which  we  cannot  explain  in  some  way  to  grat- 
ify our  vanity,  gave  rise  to  the  sect  of  skeptic  phi- 
losophers, and,  it  is  to  be  feared,  will  keep  up  the 
race  as  long  as  the  world  stands.     Let  me  not  be 
here  misunderstood.     Far  be  it  from  me  to  object 
to  theory  and  speculation,  provided  the  sole  object 
be  to  arrive  at  truth.     As  this  should  be  the  aim  of 
all,  I  am  in  favour  of  the  utmost  latitude  of  discus- 
sion in  the  honest  pursuit  of  it.     But  I  do,  and  must 
ever  protest  against  that  practice,  which  is  far  too 
common  among  us,  of  regarding  plausible  and  appa- 
rently scientific  conjectures  more  than  the  actual 
results  of  experiments  fairly  and  accurately  made  ; 
so  that  not  unfrequently  we  indulge  our  fancies  with 
the  former,  even  in  direct  opposition  to  the  latter. 
Take,  for  example,  the  two  conflicting  theories  as 
to  the  best  mode  of  applying  njanures,  and  test  them 
by  the  uniformly-concurring  results  of  the  several 
experiments  which  1  have  stated.     All  these  results 
undeniably  prove  that  the  surface-apphcation  was 
the  best,  although  the  kinds  of  manure  diff"ered  con- 
siderably.   And  what^actj  have  we  in  opposition  to 
this  1    Not  one  :  nothmg  but  the  conjecture  that  the 
evaporation  from  surface-spread  manure  must  carry 
off  the  greater  and  the  best  portion  of  the  food  of 
plants  therein  contained.     But  that  such  evapora- 
tion cannot  so  act  seems  to  me  to  be  unquestion- 
ably proved  by  every  fact  I  have  mentioned :  for,  if 
it  duly  then  the  land  of  summer  cattle-pens,  plough- 
ed up  as  soon  as  the  cattle  were  removed,  would  in 


CN  THE  APPLICATION   OF  MANURES.        261 

every  case  have  produced  better  crops  than  that  of 
the  unploughed,  instead  of  doing  it  in  none.  Similar 
results,  too,  miast  have  foUow^ed  in  the  other  cases 
which  I  have  stated,  whereas  I  have  never  seen  nor 
heard  of  their  doing  it  in  any  one. 

My  belief,  founded  on  the  facts  already  stated,  is, 
that  all  the  fertilizing  sulistaaces  of  manures  are 
soluble  in  water,  and  will  remain  uninjured  them- 
selves, and  useless  to  plants  until  the  solution  be- 
gins, whether  they  be  deposited  on  or  under  the 
earth's  surface.  I  also  believe  that  this  solution  is 
caused  by  every  fall  of  rain,  and  is  immediately  ab- 
sorbed by  the  subjacent  soil,  which  absorption  re- 
sults from  two  causes  :  first,  the  principle  of  gravi- 
ty ;  and,  secondly,  the  stronger  attraction  of  the 
earth  than  of  the  atmosphere  for  every  substance  in 
solution  which  constitutes  the  food  of  plants — more- 
over, that  the  earth  never  parts  with  this  food,  when 
thus  absorbed,  to  anything  but  the  plants  themselves ; 
for  it  is  their  peculiar  aliment,  and  not  that  of  the 
atmosphere,  whose  existence,  for  aught  we  know  to 
the  contrary,  is  entirely  independent  of  it,  although 
its  agency  seems  essential  to  the  health  and  vigour 
of  all  plants.  If  this  were  not  the  fact ;  if,  for  ex- 
ample, the  earth  did  give  the  best  and  greatest  por- 
tion of  this  food  to  the  atmosphere,  or  if  it  escaped 
from  surface-spread  manure  before  gravity  and  at- 
traction could  impart  it  to  the  earth,  then  the  evap- 
oration which  is  supposed  to  be  the  medium  of  con- 
veyance, and  which  is  known  to  be  constantly  going 
on  from  the  soil,  would,  in  process  of  time,  certainly 
render  it  barren,  even  without  any  cultivation  what- 
ever. Yet  neither  total  nor  partial  barrenness  is 
ever  known  to  be  produced  by  any  other  cause  than 
incessant  culture  without  manure.  That  evapora- 
tion does  take  off  something  from  manure  while  in 
a  moist  state,  is  proved  by  the  offensive  smell  which 
constantly  exhales  from  it  until  it  is  entirely  dry. 
This  smell  arises  from  a  gas  which  is  said  by  some 


262  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

to  contain  the  most  valuable  porti-^n  of  the  food  ol 
plants.  But  admit  the  fact,  whcic  is  the  proof  of 
this  portion  being  lost '.  1  say  there  is  none.  On 
me  contrary,  we  have  w!iat  I  consider  a  conclusive 
reason  for  believing  tliat  this  food  is  immediately 
given  by  the  atmosphere  to  the  tops  of  plants,  as* 
more  suitable  to  them  than  to  their  roots.  My  rea 
son  for  this  belief  is  the  result  of  the  following  ex- 
periment, which  I  have  known  to  be  repeated  sev- 
eral times.  All  the  bark  was  taken  off  from  around 
the  body  of  certain  young  trees,  in  a  ring  about  three 
inches  wide,  for  the  purpose,  in  the  first  case  which 
I  saw,  of  ascertaining  whether  this  process  would 
kill  the  tree.  But,  to  the  surprise  of  us  all,  not 
more  than  a  year  or  two  elapsed  before  that  part  of 
the  body  above  the  ring  became  obviously  larger 
than  the  part  below ;  and  this  difference  in  size  in- 
creased every  year  afterward,  as  I  had  frequent  op- 
portunities of  noticing. 

Another  reason  why  I  believe  that  manures  act 
better  spread  on  the  surface  of  land  than  buried  un- 
der it  in  the  customary  manner,  is,  that,  in  the  first 
case,  the  rain-water  carries  the  dissolved  substances 
no  deeper  than  the  roots  of  most  of  our  cultivated 

Slants  ;  and  that  these  substances  are  there  held  fast 
y  the  earth's  chymical  affinity  until  the  stronger 
attraction  of  the  spongioles  of  the  roots  begins  to 
act  upon  them.  But,  in  the  second  case,  that  is, 
where  manure  is  ploughed  under  as  soon  as  spread, 
all  the  food  of  plants  contained  therein  being  placed 
at  once  quite  as  deep  as  their  spongioles  naturally 
extend,  and  this,  too,  before  the  rains  begin  to  dis- 
solve it,  the  subsequent  solutions  necessarily  sink 
still  deeper,  and  generally  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
plants  for  whose  nourishment  they  are  designed. 
In  no  other  way  can  I  account  for  the  long-noticed 
and  invariable  superiority  of  crops  produced  by  sur- 
face-spread manure  to  those  produced  by  that  which 
has  been  ploughed  in.     To  me  there  appears  to  be 


ON  THE  APPLICATION  OP  MANURES.        263 

but  this  alternative;  either  to  deny  the  facts  already 
stated,  which  I  myself  have  often  witnessed,  or  to 
explain  them  (if  we  must  theorize  on  the  subject)  in 
some  such  way  as  I  have  attempted  to  do.  Permit 
me  farther  to  add,  that  on  this  subject  nature  her- 
self seems  to  offer  us  a  useful  lesson,  if  we  were 
not  too  wise  in  our  own  conceits  to  be  taught  by 
such  an  instructress  ;  for  I  know  not  a  single  ex- 
ception to  her  practice  of  depositing  on  the  earth's 
surface  all  the  putrescent  substances,  of  every  na- 
ture and  kind,  which  appear  designed  to  preserve 
her  fecundity. 

In  close  connexion  with  this  subject,  there  is  one 
other  matter  on  which  I  will  take  the  liberty  to  ex- 
press an  opinion :  this  is  in  regard  to  the  best  stale 
in  which  manure  can  be  applied.  So  far  as  my  own 
experience  enables  me  to  judge'  (an  experience  con- 
firmed by  that  of  many  others,  in  whose  practical 
knowledge  of  the  subject  I  have  great  confidence),  I 
believe  that  the  fresher  it  is  the  better ;  for  in  this 
state  so  much  less  will  suffice  than  in  a  more  ad- 
vanced stage  of  putrefaction,  that  time,  labour,  and 
value  are  all  saved  in  the  application :  while  none 
of  the  alleged  "  burning,^''  ascribed  to  manure's  being 
"  too  hot,''''  ever  occurs  if  the  quantity  used  be  less- 
ened in  proportion  to  its-  freshness.  This  injury  to 
plants,  if  I  mistake  not,  is  always  caused  by  excess 
in  the  quantity,  and  not  by  the  quality  of  the  manure 
we  apply  to  them,  although  the  two  things  are  often 
confounded,  and  thereby  contribute  to  the  perpetua- 
tion of  error  in  regard  to  the  nature  and  operation 
of  aU  fertilizing  substances.  There  is  not,  I  believe, 
an  agriculturist  of  any  experience  in  our  country 
who  has  not  had  frequent  opportunities  of  witness- 
ing numerous  facts  to  prove  the  correctness  of  these 
opinions.  But,  as  I  before  remarked,  we  are  aU 
vastly  fonder  of  our  own  fancies  than  of  facts  in 
opposition  to  them,  and,  consequently,  pass  by  all 
such  without  notice ;  or,  when  too  strong  and  oh- 


264  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

trusive  to  be  entirely  disregarded,  we  spare  no  la- 
bour nor  pains  to  force  them,  as  far  as  we  possibly 
can,  to  support  some  previously-conceived  notion 
which  our  silly  pride  forbids  us  to  abandon.  This 
obstacle  to  the  progress  of  all  improvement,  but 
especially  in  husbandry,  is  one  of  the  most  penii- 
cious  of  our  besetting  sins;  and,  but  far  this,  it 
seems  to  me  impossible  that  any  controversy  should 
still  exist  in  regard  to  the  best  manner  and  state  in 
which  to  apply  manures  to  land.  Two  or  three 
years,  at  farthest,  would  have  been  amply  sufficient 
to  establish  the  most  beneficial  practice,  if  all  those 
whose  special  interest  it  is  to  ascertain  it  would 
have  diligently  and  impartially  resorted  to  compara- 
tive experiments,  accurately  and  assiduously  made 
for  the  purpose,  rather  than  to  speculating  and  the- 
orizing about  it.  Cut  it  can  never  be  too  late  to 
make  such  experiments.  Let  me,  therefore,  most 
earnestly  recommend  to  all  who  have  doubts  on  the 
subject,  forthwith  to  commence  making  trials  of  the 
different  methods  of  applying  manures,  and  also  of 
the  different  states  in  which  it  is  best  to  apply  it. 
The  opinions  of  experienced  men  are  certainly  well 
worth  consulting  in  regard  to  ail  matters  connected 
with  their  respective  trades,  professions,  or  callings  ; 
but  we  should  never  implicitly  take  them  as  guides 
for  our  own  practice  any  longer  than  until  we  can 
have  leisure  to  test  their  correctness  by  actual  ex- 
periments. When  a  number  of  these  concur  in  pro- 
ducing the  same  uniform  result,  it  is  matter  of  very 
little  comparative  importance  how  others  may  en- 
deavour to  account  for  the  fact,  as  the  fact  itself  is 
the  all-important  thing,  esf)ecially  in  ever>'  practical 
art.  But  this  war  between  speculation  and  practice, 
between  nature's  doings  and  our  fanciful  ways  of 
accounting  for  them,  is  destined,  1  fear,  never  to 
cease  so  long  as  such  a  thing  remains  in  the  w<irld 
as  pride  of  opinion.  Let  a  man  once  commit  him- 
self so  far  (either  in  speaking  or  writing)  as  publicly 


USE  OF  LIME  AS  A  PREVENTIVE.  2G5 

to  deliver  what  he  considers  an  argument  in  support 
of  his  ipse  dijcit,  and  there  are  a  hundred  chances  to 
one  tliat  he  persists  in  it  to  the  day  of  his  death. 

James  M.  Garnett. 
FredericksbuTgk,  Va.,  June]  1839. 

IFFICACY    OF    LIME    IN    PREVENTING   INSECT   DEPREOA* 
TIONS MILDEW    OF    THE    GOOSEBERRY. 

In  the  Cultivator  for  May,  1839,  page  57, 1  noticed 
a  communication  which  stated,  among  other  things, 
that  a  piece  of  com,  on  ground  where  fragments  of 
wall,  &c.,  had  been  strewn  for  manure,  was  exempt 
from  the  ravages  of  worms.  This  recalled  to  my 
recollection  some  facts  which  were  communicated 
to  me  in  conversation  some  time  ago  by  an  intelli- 
gent old  gentleman,  who  was  for  many  years  a  farm- 
er in  Columbia  county,  in  this  state,  and  which  were 
in  substance  as  follows :  He  once  applied  what  he 
supposed  at  the  time  was  plaster  or  gypsum,  but 
which  was  afterward  ascertained  to  be  lime,  to  a 
number  of  hills  of  corn,  potatoes,  cucumbers,  mel- 
ons, &c.  It  was  used  at  the  time  of  planting,  about 
a  handful  being  thrown  directly  over  the  seeds  in 
each  hill  previous  to  their  being  covered  with  earth. 
He  remarked  that  the  corn  to  which  this  application 
had  been  made  was  entirely  exempt  from  worms, 
while  other  pieces  in  the  vicinity  suffered  severely 
from  their  depredations.  The  cucumber  and  melon 
vines,  &c.,  thus  treated,  were  also  exempt  from  their 
attacks,  neither  were  they  troubled  by  the  striped 
bugs  or  flies  with  which  they  are  generally  attacked. 
My  informant  farther  assured  me  that  he  had  after- 
ward repeated  this  experiment  a  number  of  times, 
and  always  with  a  like  satisfactory  result.  It  would 
seem  from  this  that  lime  is  to  a  great  extent  a  pre- 
ventive of  the  ravages  of  the  grub  and  other  insects, 
when  applied  at  or  previous  to  the  time  of  planting. 
The  mode  practised  by  my  informant  may  not  an- 
swer for  all  soils  and  situations,  but  the  same  result 

1.— X 


866  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

might  probably  be  attained  by  throwing  the  linae 
mixed  with  earth  over  tiie  surface,  and  ploughing  or 
harrowing  it  under  previous  to  planting.* 
•  There  are  in  my  garden  some  young  gooseberry- 
bushes  which  have  been  well  manured  and  pruned, 
but  the  fruit,  since  they  commenced  bearing  (about 
three  years  ago),  has  been  uniformly  rusty,  as  it  is 
commonly  termed.  To  prevent  this,  1  have  tried 
several  remedies  without  success.  Last  year,  see- 
ing salt  dissolved  in  water  somewhere  recommend- 
ed, I  had  it  sprinkled  over  the  bushes  several  times, 
commencing  when  they  were  in  blossom,  but  with- 
out any  effect.  I  have  also  tried  lime  (recommend- 
ed, I  believe,  in  the  Cultivator).  Last  fall  it  was 
applied  freely  about  the  roots,  and  the  branches 
whitewashed  as  thoroughly  as  practicable,  and  a 
small  quantity  mixed  with  water  was  sprinkled  over 
the  bushes  two  or  three  times  this  spring.  E. 

THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF   PRUNING. 

We  apprehend  that  the  common  practices  in  this 
branch  of  rural  labour  are  not  altogether  based  upon 
a  sound  philosophy.  The  animal  structure,  we  all 
know,  is  admirably  adapted  to  its  wants,  its  habits, 
and  its  uses.  There  is  no  surplusage ;  no  useless 
encumbrance ;  all  is  necessary  to  fulfil  the  designs 
of  nature.     From  analogy,  then,  and  from  the  sys- 

•  Remark.— '^'e  have  cultivated  the  gooseberry  eighteen  years, 
during  sixteen  of  which  we  lost  most  or  all  o(  the  crop  by  mil- 
dew or  rust  ;  but  the  last  two  years  the  fruit  has  been  fine, 
clean,  and  healthy.  We  impute  the  recent  exemption  from 
these  diseases  to  the  application  of  brine  (salt  and  water)  to  the 
ground  about  the  bushes  m  the  month  of  February  the  two  pre- 
ceding years.  We  consider  the  mddew  a  vegetable  parasite, 
which  abides  permanently  upon  the  collar  and  root  of  the  bush, 
and  from  which  seeils  are  disseminated,  under  a  suitable  state 
of  the  atmosphere  m  summer,  to  the  fruit;  and  that  the  appli- 
cation of  salt,  when  vegetation  is  dormant,  destroys  the  parasite 
without  hurimg  the  bush.  Fickle  may  be  used  in  the  growing 
season  at  the  rate  of  one  ounce  of  salt  to  one  gallon  of  water 
In  wmter  it  may  be  made  much  stronger.— Cond. 


THE  PHILOSOPHY  OP  PRUNING.  267 

tem  atid  order  which  everywhere  pervade  the  visible 
creation,  is  it  not  reasonable  to  infer  that  every  part 
of  the  vegetable  structure  is  alike  essential  to  its 
well-being  !  Are  not  the  branches  and  leaves  as  in- 
dispensable to  the  tree  as  the  limbs  and  lungs  are  to 
the  animal?  Who  will  say  otherwise?  Nature 
produces  nothing  in  vain.  Although  we  may  assist 
in  carrying  out  her  designs,  we  cannot  cross  her 
purposes  without  suffering  the  penalty  imposed  for 
a  violation  of  her  laws. 

No  one  part  of  a  plant  can  be  affected  without  at 
the  same  time  affecting  the  other  parts.  Roots  and 
branches  reciprocally  produce  and  nourish  each 
other.  If  a  tree  has  part  of  its  roots  destroyed,  the 
branches  which  these  support  will  decay ;  and  when, 
on  the  other  hand,  some  of  the  branches  are  destroy- 
ed, a  portion  of  the  roots  will  perish  also.  The  ex- 
tent and  ibrm  of  the  one  will,  in  a  measure,  ever  cor- 
respond with  the  extent  and  form  of  the  other.  If 
a  young  tree  be  kept  close  pruned — divested  of  its 
limbs  and  foliage — it  will  soon  be  stinted  in  its 
growth,  the  wood  will  become  carious  and  diseased, 
and  the  plant  will  be  short-lived.  If,  therefore,  we 
destroy  the  equilibrium  which  na!»'ire  has  establish- 
ed between  roots  and  branches,  by  greatly  diminish- 
ing the  one  or  the  other,  we  thwart  her  designs  and 
mistake  our  own  interest.  Every  branch  has  its 
roots — its  mouths — in  the  soil,  to  supply  it  with  the 
elements  of  its  nourishment ;  and  every  root  has  its 
branch  and  its  leaves — its  lungs — in  the  air,  to  con- 
vert those  elements  into  food  for  the  joint  benefit 
of  them  both  and  of  the  stem.  One  cannot  attain 
growth  without  the  co-operation  of  the  other.  With- 
out the  roots  the  plant  cannot  receive  the  elements 
of  its  food,  and  without  the  leaves,  those  elements, 
when  taken  into  the  system,  are  of  no  benefit ;  but, 
on  the  contrary,  like  undigested  food  in  the  animal 
stomach,  generate  disease  instead'  of  promoting 
health  and  vigour.    Every  leaf  performs  its  office 


268  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

in  the  process  of  nutrition  and  growth ;  and,  other 
circumstances  being  alike,  the  increase  in  the  growth 
of  the  plant  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
its  healthy  leaves  :  if  one  half  of  these  be  destroy- 
ed, the  growth  will  be  only  one  half  as  great  as  if 
the  whole  had  remained ;  and,  if  complete  defoUa- 
tion  takes  place,  the  growth  will  entirely  cease. 
Hence  pruning  decreases  growth  in  proportion  to 
the  extent  or  severity  with  which  it  is  practised. 

"  Whenever  a  tree  has  a  live  spray  cut  from  it,  an 
injury  is  inflicted  on  that  tree  that  can  never  entire- 
ly be  repaired.  Every  wound  received  is  stored  up ; 
and  if  wounds  be  constantly  added,  they  will  accu- 
mulate to  a  degree  too  great  to  be  borne,  and  the 
tree  will  sink  under  its  infirmities.  It  is  useless  to 
attempt  to  transfer  the  timber  of  the  boughs  to  the 
stem,  or  to  confine  the  growth  entirely  to  it.  How- 
ever desirable  it  may  be  to  the  pruner  to  have  all 
the  growth  diverted  to  the  increase  of  the  stem,  he 
never  will  be  able  to  effect  it.  He  may,  like  the 
dog,  snap  at  the  shadow  and  lose  the  substance ; 
but  never  will  he  be  able,  by  pruning  off  the  boughs, 
to  increase  the  growth  of  the  stem  one  jot.  No : 
the  size  of  the  stem  will  be  in  proportion  to  the 
head  it  has  to  support.  The  stem  is  not,  as  he  may 
imagine,  a  production  formed  merely  for  the  use  of 
man ;  it  is  the  canal  or  passage  in  which  the  juices 
pass  between  the  roots  and  branches ;  and  the  size 
of  this  passage  is  always  in  proportion  to  the  offices 
it  has  to  perform.  If  the  number  of  branches  [mean- 
ing to  include  leaves]  be  increased,  the  quantity  of 
sap  passing  between  them  and  the  roots  will  be  in 
creased ;  a  greater  space  becomes  necessary  for  the 
increased  quantity  of  sap,  and,  consequently,  the 
stem  is  increased.  Let  the  head  of  the  tree  in- 
crease, and,  depend  upon  it,  there  will  be  a  corre- 
sponding increase  of  the  stem. 

"  It  is  said  to  be  right  to  cut  away  a  small  propor- 
tion of  the  weaker  branches,  and  thus  turn  the  cur- 


THE  "PHILOSOPHY    OF    PRUNING.  269 

rent  of  the  descending  sap  more  abundantly  into  the 
stem.  It  is  hard  to  understand  what  is  meant  by 
this  explanation  of  the  effects  of  pruning.  Does 
the  sap  descend  down  the  stem  till  it  arrives  at  the 
weaker  branches,  and  then  ascend  up  them  and  in- 
crease their  size  instead  of  that  of  the  stem  1  If  so, 
the  weaker  branches  would  soon  become  the  strong- 
er ;  or,  rather,  if  trees  have  the  property  of  sending 
the  sap  from  the  strong  branches  to  the  weaker,  all 
the  branches  would  be  equally  strong.  The  de- 
scending sap,  on  reaching  the  weaker  branches, 
would  become  ascending  sap.  And  if  the  small 
branches  be  considered  obstructions,  preventing  the 
descent  of  the  sap,  the  large  branches  must  be 
greaier  obstructions.  But  where  does  the  sap  de- 
scend from  !  Pnmers  forget  that  they  cannot  cut 
a  live  spray  from  a  tree  without  lessening  the  quan- 
tity of  its  leaves.  Their  theory  is  founded  in  error, 
and  all  their  reasoning  is  false." — Ballard,  in  Farm, 
Mag. 

This  explains  what  often  seems  enigmatical  to 
superficial  observers  in  vegetable  economy,  viz., 
that  moderate-sized  trees  from  a  nursery  have  or- 
dinarily a  much  thriftier  and  healthier  growth,  and 
arrive  sooner  to  a  good  bearing  state,  when  trans- 
planted, than  trees  that  are  very  large.  In  the  for- 
mer, the  natural  proportion  between  the  roots  and 
the  branches  is  preserved,  the  roots  being  taken  up 
nearly  entire ;  the  sap-vessels,  therefore,  are  filled, 
and  the  growth  is  but  partially  retarded.  While,  in 
taking  up  very  large  trees,  whose  roots  have  greatly 
extended,  the  mouths  of  the  plant  are  seriously  di- 
minished, the  sap-vessels  contract  and  become  in- 
durated in  consequence  of  the  diminished  supply  of 
sap,  and  the  tree  must  acquire  new  roots  and  new 
sapwood  by  a  slow  process  of  growth  ere  it  can 
flourish  with  its  accustomed  vigour.  The  same  evil 
results  from  cutting  off  the  entire  top  of  a  tree.  It 
is  deprived  of  its  elaborating  organs ;  and,  although 


270  AMERICAN  HUSBANDRT. 

the  root  may  send  up  the  elements  of  food,  they 
cannot  benefit  the  plant  for  want  of  leaves  to  con- 
vert them  into  vegetable  blood.  It  is  no  argument 
against  this  position,  that  deciduous  trees  spontane- 
ously develop  foliage  and  flowers  in  the  spring. 
There  is  a  store  of  elaborated  sap  laid  up  in  autumn 
to  effect  this.  Strip  a  tree  entirely  of  its  leaves  in 
June,  when  this  store  is  exhausted,  and  the  tree  will 
not  grow,  and  probably  will  die.  The  stem,  at  least, 
will  sustain  serious  injury.  The  nurseryman  knows 
that,  after  an  apple,  pear,  or  plum  stock  has  been  cut 
down  and  grafted  upon,  the  heart-wood  becomes 
unsound  if  the  graft  fails  to  grow,  and  the  whole 
stock  dozy,  and,  in  a  manner,  worthless  for  a  future 
scion,  and  that  it  will  not  grow  a  particle  above 
where  it  sends  off  suckers. 

The  tendency  of  pruning  to  generate  disease  and 
to  shorten  the  life  of  trees  is  illustrated  in  the  ap- 
pearance of  old  orchards  which  have  been  injudi- 
ciously pruned.  Wherever  a  limb  is  split  off  by 
winds  or  accident,  it  will  be  seen  to  expose  a  dis- 
eased heart-wood ;  and  this  disease  at  the  heart 
spreads  to  the  roots  and  branches,  and  induces  pre- 
mature death.  The  natural  duration  of  the  apple- 
tree  is  believed  to  be  more  than  one  hundred  years ; 
and  yet  how  few  are  found  in  a  healty  state  at  fifty 
years  I  Mark  the  contrast,  in  soundness  of  wood, 
in  vigour  of  growth,  and  in  duration  of  life,  between 
the  apple  and  other  frequently-pruned  trees,  and 
those  trees,  whether  fruit  or  forest,  which  are  left 
to  luxuriate  naturally,  without  the  artificial  aid  of 
the  pruning-knife. 

If  pruning  be  prejudicial  to  growth  and  longevity, 
wliy,  then,  we  may  be  asked,  prune  at  all  ?  We  an- 
swer, for  utility,  to  give  beauty  to  the  tree,  and  to 
improve  and  increase  the  fruit. 

In  natural  forest-growth,  trees  attain  height,  and 
a  straight,  clear  timber  form,  from  their  crowded  sit- 
uation ;  and  as  the  lower  branches  become  useless, 


THE  PHILOSOPHY  OP  PRUNING.  271 

they  die  and  fall  off.  But  in  cultivated  grounds,  or 
where  there  is  ample  room  for  roots  and  branches 
to  spread,  this  does  not  take  place ;  and  hence  the 
propriety  ol  pruning  here  to  obtain  a  good  stem  for 
timber,  or  a  handsome  top  for  shade  and  ornament. 
Often  there  are  two  or  more  leading  shoots  striving 
for  the  mastery,  and,  unless  they  are  shortened  ov 
taken  oft',  there  will  be  two  or  more  stems  of  dimin- 
utive size,  instead  of  one  of  larger  size.  We  may 
therefore  prune  shade-trees  to  improve  their  form 
or  to  please  the  fancy,  and  timber-trees  to  improve 
the  bole ;  but  in  neither  case  do  we  either  increase 
the  growth  or  prolong  the  life  of  the  tree. 

"  As  the  twig  is  bent,  so  will  the  tree  incline,"  is 
literally  true  in  regard  to  pruning.  We  can  give 
almost  any  form  to  trees  which  fancy  may  conceive, 
by  beginning  early,  and  persevering  with  the  pru- 
ning-knife  or  shears,  as  is  often  witnessed  in  clipped 
hedges  and  in  ornamental  garden-grounds.  We 
miy  make  them  dwarfs  or  standards,  or  give  them 
a  thin  or  dense  foliage  at  our  pleasure.  They  may 
be  trained  or  cut  into  the  shape  of  animals,  into  ge- 
ometrical fprms,  or  architectural  or  sculptural  com- 
positions. 

We  prune  fruit-trees  to  improve  the  fruit  and  to 
induce  a  bearing  habit.  The  roots  of  trees  take  up 
from  the  soil  a  certain  quantity  of  vegetable  food, 
call  it  geine,  or  humus,  or  organic  remains,  or  what 
you  please ;  it  has  previously  constituted  parts  of 
vegetable  structure,  and  is  convertible  by  natural 
processes  into  wood  or  fruit,  or  both.  If  the  ten- 
dency of  the  plant  is  to  wood,  as  is  generally  the 
case  with  all  healthy  young  trees,  the  fruit  will  be 
scanty  and  inferior,  at  least  till  the  tree  has  attained 
to  mature  size.  But  if  the  tendency  to  growth  is 
checked  by  poverty  of  soil,  disease,  or  judicious  pru- 
ning, the  tree  will  be  brought  into  a  precocious  state 
of  bearing,  and,  hi  the  case  of  judicious  pruning,  pro- 
duce more  and  better  fruit. 


278  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY. 

In  pruning  or  training  to  induce  a  fruit-bearing 
habit,  the  object  is  to  check  the  uninterrupted,  and, 
we  may  say,  natural  descent  of  the  elaborated  sap 
to  the  root,  by  encouraging  a  horizontal  instead  of 
an  upright  growth  of  the  brandies  when  the  tree  ap- 
proaches the  bearing  age.  This  causes  a  stricture 
in  the  descending  sap-vessels  at  the  bifurcation  or 
junction  of  the  branches  with  the  stem,  and  a  conse- 
quent accumulation  of  elaborated  sap  in  the  branch- 
es, to  generate  fruit-buds  and  to  swell  the  fruit. 
The  same  object  is  sometimes,  though  injudicious- 
ly, effected  by  cutting  out  a  narrow  circle  of  bark, 
or  by  ligatures,  to  prevent  the  descent  of  the  elabo- 
rated sap.  Hence  the  upright  shoot  is  often  cut 
out,  particularly  in  the  apple-tree,  and  the  branches 
are  trained  horizontally,  diagonally,  or  in  a  half-in- 
verted position,  as  on  walls,  espaliers,  and  in  the  en 
queneille,  or  distaff  form  of  training.  These  opera- 
tions have  also  a  tendency  to  improve  the  quality  of 
the  fruit,  by  giving  it  a  better  exposure  to  the  kind 
influences  of  the  sun,  air,  and  light,  all  essential  to 
its  due  maturity  and  high  flavour.  Nature  provides 
for  the  propagation  of  the  species  by  producing  per- 
fect seed,  leaving  to.  art  the  labour  and  contrivance 
of  enlarging  and  enriching  the  pulp  or  fruit.  All 
fruits  may  be  improved  from  their  natural  state  by 
artificial  culture,  though  nothing  can  be  added  there 
by  to  the  intrinsic  value  of  the  seed  or  the  natural 
duration  of  the  tree.  The  seeds  of  the  wild  crab  or 
wild  pear  are  as  good  to  sow  for  stocks  to  graft  or 
bud  upon,  as  the  seeds  of  the  cultivated  varieties  of 
these  fruits ;  and,  indeed,  according  to  Dr.  Van 
Mons's  theory,  which  his  practice  seems  to  have 
confirmed,  they  are  the  best  from  which  to  start 
new  varieties. 

Prune,  therefore,  when  necessary  to  improve 
timber ;  prune  for  ornament ;  prune  to  improve  the 
fruit;  but  do  not  prune  in  the  hope  of  accelerating 
growth  or  of  prolonging  Hfe.    And,  in  all  your  pru- 


THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  PRUNING.  273 

* 

nings,  cut  while  the  wood  is  small,  and  spare  to  the 
tree  all  the  foliage  you  can  consistent  with  the  ob- 
ject you  have  in  view.  By  pruning  when  the  tree 
is  young,  and  pruning  often,  we  may  secure  a  hand- 
some stem  and  a  well-formed  head,  and  we  cause 
no  wounds  that  do  not  speedily  heal. 

The  common  practice  is  to  prune  in  autumn  or 
spring,  when  the  tree  is  divested  of  foliage.  To  this 
practice  we  make  two  objections.  In  the  first  place, 
the  wounds  are  exposed  (unless  covered  with  a  suit- 
able composition)  to  the  searching  and  corroding  in- 
fluience  of  the  sun,  wind,  and  rain,  there  being  no 
leaves  to  shield  nor  circulating  pulp  to  heal  them. 
In  the  second  place,  it  causes  the  niultiphcation  of 
suckers,  and  often  increases  the  evil  which  it  is  de- 
signed to  cure.  The  sap  is  arrested  in  the  spring^ 
when  its  flow  is  greatest,  in  its  natural  course  to 
the  amputated  branches,  oozes  out  and  corrodes  the 
bark  and  wood,  or  exhausts  itself  in  the  production 
of  a  prolific  growth  of  suckers,  more  detrimental  to 
the  tree  than  the  parts  that  have  been  lopped  off". 
If  pruning  is  performed  the  last  of  June,  when  the 
exuberant  flow  of  sap  has  abated,  the  wounds  are  in 
a  measure  protected  by  the  foliage  from  the  weath- 
er ;  much  unelaborated  has  then  become  elaborated 
sap,  transformed  into  cambium  or  pulp,  whose  heal- 
ing qualities  soon  cover  the  edges  of  the  wound; 
fevv  or  no  suckers  are  generated,  and  the  heart  of 
the  tree  is  preserved  from  canker  and  decay.  These 
opinions  as  to  the  propriety  of  summer-pruning  have 
been  confirmed  in  our  mind  by  three  years'  practice 
and  observation. 

Another  common  error  in  pruning  is  the  practice 
of  cutting  all  the  lateral  shoots  from  a  young  tree 
except  a  few  at  the  top  ;  and  to  cut  young,  vigorous 
wood  from  the  tops  of  old  trees,  leaving  long,  ex- 
tended, naked  branches,  which  are  often  broken  by 
the  wmds.  In  the  first  case,  we  obtain  long,  spin- 
cUing  stems,  incapable  of  supporting,  when  trans- 


274  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

• 

planted  to  an  oi>en  situation,  a  good  top.  The  same 
evil  occurs  in  the  nursery  or  the  forest,  when  the 
young  trees  stand  in  a  crowded  position.  In  the 
second  case,  wc  produce  unsightly  and  compara- 
tively unproductive  tops.  Since  the  offices  and  the 
importance  of  loaves  in  the  vegetable  economy  have 
been  better  understood,  a  manifest  improvement  in 
prmiing  has  taken  place.  It  is  now  contended,  and, 
we  think,  upon  correct  principles,  that  none,  or  but 
very  few  of  the  lateral  branches  should  be  cut  en- 
tirely from  young  trees  until  the  tree  is  tall  enough 
to  form  a  head  ;  and  that  the  pruner  should  be  con- 
tent with  shortening  those  which  interfere  with  the 
main  stem,  and  such  as  are  of  unreasonable  length. 
By  this  means  we  get  a  tapering  and  straight  stem, 
and  retain  the  aid  of  a  large  portion  of  the  leaves 
towards  its  enlargement.  Every  leaf  contributes  to 
the  growth  of  the  stem  below  the  point  of  connex- 
ion. When  the  tree  has  attained  a  proper  height 
to  form  the  top„  it  is  advisable,  particularly  with  the 
apple,  to  cut  out  the  upright  shoot,  leaving  three,  or, 
at  most,  four  lateral  branches  upon  different  sides. 
If  a  little  attention  is  afterward  annually  given  to 
cutting  out  the  small  limbs  which  are  likely  to  cross 
or  interfere  with  each  other,  the  necessity  of  cutting 
off  large  branches  will  be  for  a  long  time  prevented. 
In  old  trees,  the  older  branches  frequently  become 
cankered  and  diseased,  and  young,  thrifty  wood  is 
thrown  out  at  or  near  their  base.  In  this  case,  it  is 
always  preferable  to  cut  away  the  diseased  wood, 
leaving  the  healthy  shoots  to  take  their  place.  In 
transplanting  trees  the  knife  should  be  used  sparing- 
ly. If  the  roots  are  greatly  diminished  in  digging 
up  the  tree,  the  top  may  be  lightened  by  thinning  its 
branches ;  or,  if  none  of  these  can  be  spared  with- 
out marring  the  form,  the  longer  branches  may  be 
shortened,  or  cut  in  at  a  bud  ;  but  we  do  not  advise, 
in  any  case,  the  cutting  off  the  entire  top. 


THE   MIND   AND   THE   SOIL.  275 


THE    MIND   AND   THE   SOIL. 

Ill  cultivating  the  soil,  we  have  our  seed-time  and 
our  harvest-time ;  and  we  all  very  well  know,  that 
if  good  seed  is  not  deposited  in  good  time,  the  har- 
vest will  either  be  scanty  or  altogether  fail.  We 
can  reap  only  what  we  sow,  unless  it  be  the  weeds 
and  noxious  plants  which  spring  up  spontaneously 
from  our  neglect.  So  it  is  with  the  mind.  It  has 
its  seed-time  and  its  harvest-time  ;  its  vernal  season 
of  youth,  and  its  summer  season  of  manhood.  And 
the  good  seed  we  sow  in  the  young  mind  will  as  as- 
suredly grow  and  give  its  increase  as  that  which  we 
deposite  in  the  soil.  Our  crops  tend  to  increase  our 
wealth  and  add  to  our  animal  enjoyments.  The  im- 
provement of  the  mind  not  only  tends  to  these  de- 
sirable ends  by  aiding  the  labour  of  the  hands,  but  it 
tends  also  to  knowledge,  to  virtue,  to  happiness. 

Do  we  estimate  these  things  rightly,  and  assign 
to  each  its  relative  value  1  Do  we  not  graduate  the 
wages  of  the  labourer  who  cultivates  our  soil  by  the 
measure  of  good  he  can  render  us  ]  And  do  we  not 
graduate  the  wages  of  the  teacher,  who  cultivates 
the  minds  of  our  children  on  a  very  different  princi- 
ple, by  the  small  amount  which  his  wants  or  his 
limited  capacity  induces  him  to  take  ?  While  we 
make  merit  the  criterion  of  our  choice  in  the  culti- 
vation of  the  soil,  do  we  not  too  often  make  the  want 
of  it  the  criterion  in  choosing  the  cultivator  of  the 
mind  1  And  yet  all  must  acknowledge  that  qualifi- 
cation and  excellence  are  as  much  more  important 
in  the  latter  than  in  the  former,  as  mind  is  superior 
to  matter,  as  a  good  man  is  superior  to  a  good  crop. 
Who  would  not  feel  a  higher  pride  in  rearing  a  fam- 
ily of  intelligent,  virtuous,  and  useful  children,  than 
in  rearing  a  fine  beast,  or  in  raising  a  great  crop  of 
corn  ■?  Let  us  try  to  mend  in  this  matter ;  to  get 
good  labourers  in  the  mental  and  moral  no  less  than 
ir.  the  vegetable  field  of  culture.  Thfon  shall  oiir 
children  "  rise  up  and  bless  us." 


S76  AMERICAN   HUdBANDRT. 


CHAPTER  XL  , 

MISCELLANEOUS   ARTICLES CONTIKUPO. 

Caleb  Kirk  on  Hedging. — Animal  Nutrition. — On  the  Use  of 
Gypsum.— Choked  Cattle. — Specific  Food  in  Soils  for  Plants. 

Having  preferred  plashing  to  an)'  other  mode  that 
I  had  seen  made  use  of  in  training  a  hedge,  I  began 
the  process  when  the  stalks  were  about  an  inch  in 
diameter  near  the  root,  and  from  that  to  an  inch  and 
a  half:  if  well  attended  to  in  their  previous  growth, 
they  will  attain  that  size  in  six  or  seven  years  after 
they  are  planted  ;  but,  if  neglected,  they  may  require 
double  that  period.  It  may  be  observed,  that  no  ad- 
vantage is  gained  by  plashing  before  a  good  root  is 
formed,  for  that  is  the  future  support  and  basis  of 
the  superstructure.  By  having  a  good  strong  root, 
the  cutting  or  wounding  the  top  or  body  of  the  stalk 
will  soon  recover  from  any  injury  received  in  the 
necessary  work  of  plashing,  which  is  done  by  cut- 
ting the  body  of  each  stalk  with  a  hedge-knife  or 
pruning-hook,  bending  the  stalk  with  one  hand  in 
the  direction  it  is  to  be  laid,  at  the  same  time,  by  a 
stroke  of  the  knife  with  the  other,  about  four  inches 
from  the  surface  of  the  ground.  If  one  stroke  should 
not  prove  sufficient,  a  second  or  third  may  be  appli- 
ed, being  careful  to  leave  as  much  of  the  wood  uncut 
as  to  aftbrd  the  sap  to  flow  into  the  top,  and  yet  to 
bend  easy  into  an  inclined  position  of  about  forty- 
five  degrees'  elevation  from  the  base  or  bank  on 
which  it  stands :  one  third  or  one  fourth  of  uncut 
wood  is  sufficient  to  supply  sap  to  the  plashing, 
which  must  bend  easy,  otherwise  it  would  incline 
to  rise  out  of  the  proper  degree  of  inclination.  Much 
depends  on  this  circumstance  in  forming  a  good  and 


CALEB    KIRK    ON    HEDGING.  277 

uniform  hedge ;  the  plashings  should  not  press  one 
upon  another  so  much  as  to  prevent  a  free  and  un- 
obstructed circulation  of  air,  and  the  sun's  rays  also, 
as  the  health  and  vigour  of  the  plashing  is  much 
promoted  thereby.  If  there  should  be  too  much 
wood  in  the  hedge,  by  planting  too  close  or  any  oth- 
er cause,  it  must  be  cut  away,  leaving  no  more  than 
what  is  really  necessary  to  form  the  basis  of  a  good 
and  lasting  live  fence.  One  of  my  errors  was  suf- 
fering too  much  brushwood  to  be  crowded  into  my 
first  live  hedges,  both  living  and  dead;  brushwood, 
such  as  was  cut  away  in  some  places  where  too 
thick,  and  filled  in  where  too  thin.  In  order  to 
make  a  present  fence,  I  was  induced  to  suffer  it  to  be 
done  in  this  way,  from  the  recommendation  of  my 
hedger,  who  was  from  the  west  of  England,  and  had 
been  in  that  practice ;  for  the  immediate  making  a 
fence  of  such  materials  as  he  had  to  do  with,  I  read- 
ily gave  his  judgment  the  preference,  he  having  had 
experience  in  the  business. 

But  my  observations  in  two  or  three  years  more 
convinced  me  of  the  impropriety  of  introducing  dead 
wood  to  fill  every  vacancy,  as  well  as  crowding  too 
much  of  that  which  was  living.  1  had  much  of  it  to 
remove  in  places  where  a  want  of  health  demonstra- 
ted the  present  evil.  After  this  was  done  the  re- 
maining part  became  more  healthy,  but  it  remains 
thin,  and  never  will  overcome  the  injury.  There 
seems  to  be  no  inclination  to  put  out  shoots  from 
the  old  wood  in  those  vacancies,  which  would  have 
put  forth  shoots  when  newly  laid  if  no  obstruction 
had  been  present. 

I  find  it  is  best  to  trim  off  the  branches,  especially 
the  large  ones,  though  not  very  close  to  the  body  of 
the  stalk.  It  shoots  young  sprouts  more  abundant- 
ly from  the  plashing,  which  rise  in  an  upright  form, 
as  well  as  those  from  the  stumps  shooting  up  through 
the  plashing  ;  interlocks  the  whole  together,  holding 
the  plashing  in  their  place  as  crossbars,  and  forms 


278 


AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 


a  kind  of  lattice-work.  On  the  contrary,  if  the  pla8h< 
ing  is  too  crowded,  the  shoots  rising  from  the  stuinp 
will  evade  the  thicket  and  push  out  in  a  lateral  di- 
rection, endeavouring  to  gain  the  benefit  of  sun  and 
uir,  and  rise  on  the  outside,  where  they  are  injurious 
instead  of  beneficial ;  by  secluding  the  plashing  from 
the  benefit  of  sun  and  air,  the  sap  no  longer  inclines 
to  the  plashing,  but  flows  freely  into  the  suckers  on 
the  outside. 

I  have  been  more  particular  on  this  point,  having 
seen  errors  in  others,  as  well  as  my  own,  on  that 
head. 

Previous  to  laying  a  hedge,  a  quantity  of  stakes 
are  to  be  provided  about  four  feet  and  a  half  long  if 
it  stands  on  a  bank,  or  a  little  longer  if  the  ground 
is  not  elevated,  and  split  as  small  as  they  will  bear 
to  drive  about  one  foot  in  the  ground ;  they  are  to 
be  driven  through  the  plashing  occasionally,  as  the 
work  progresses,  in  a  straight  line  two  feet  and  a 
half  or  three  feet  distant  from  each  other.  These 
stakes  are  driven  through  the  plashing,  so  as  to  keep 


the  part  laid  directly  over  the  stumps,  for  reasons 
before  given,  the  shoots  rising  immediately  through 
the  plash :  the  stakes  are  bound  in  their  place  by 
wattles  or  poles,  prepared  of  alder  or  willow,  or  any- 
thing that  will  not  in  future  make  useful  timber,  as 
their  use  is  only  temporary,  until  the  hedge  becomes 
set  by  growth. 
Thiis  binding  has  the  appearance  of  a  twisted  rope. 


CALEB    KIRK    ON    HEDGING.  279 

If  rightly  done,  it  steadies  the  head  of  tlie  stakes, 
and  keeps  them  in  a  direct  line,  and  serves  the  pur- 
pose of  holding  straggling  shoots  that  may  be  di- 
rected under  its  confinement,  and  confines  the  top 
of  the  hedge,  holding  it.  steady  for  trimming  until  its 
own  growth  gives  it  stability. 

The  next  year  after  being  laid  it'should  be  exam- 
ined, and  any  shoot  that  inclines  to  leave  the  right 
direction  should  be  cut  away,  unless  there  is  a  va- 
cant spot  to  receive  it ;  then  it  ought  to  be  intro- 
duced into  such  vacuum.  By  frequently  trimming 
the  superfluous  branches  off,  the  body  becomes  more 
dense  and  impenetrable. 

About  five  years  past  I  adopted  the  summer  trim- 
ming about  the  middle  of  June,  and  found  it  much 
easier  to  accomplish  while  the  shoot  was  in  a  tender 
state ;  and  I  have  regularly  done  the  trimming  in 
that  and  the  following  month  ever  since,  finding  the 
labour  much  easier  performed,  and  no  bad  effect  on 
the  hedges,  though  warned  by  some  to  the  contrary, 
apprehending  bad  consequences  to  arise  from  cutting 
at  that  season. 

The  present  season  having  been  excessively  dry 
and  warm,  I  have  not  discovered  the  least  injury  : 
they  have  held  their  foliage  as  well  as  usual. 

My  conclusion  has  been,  that  by  cutting  when  the 
sap  is  in  full  flow,  and  taking  away  the  small  shoots 
that  were  carrying  off"  a  considerable  portion  for 
their  support,  that  portion  must  diff"use  and  spread 
through  the  whole  body  of  the  hedge,  and  add 
strength  to  every  remaining  part. 

The  foregoing  remarks  will  apply  to  either  kind 
of  thorn  as  it  regards  the  treatment  of  them ;  but 
the  Virginia  kind  has  advantages,  though  not  so 
rugged  in  appearance  as  the  Delaware  :  they  are 
more  uniform  in  their  growth,  and  give  regularity 
and  uniformity  to  the  hedge.  But  what  is  very  im- 
portant is  their  inclination  to  send  out  an  abundance 
of  shoots  or  suckers  when  cut,  not  only  from  the 


280  AltlGRICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

Bttimp,  but  from  the  plash  also :  the  latter  is  not  tha 
case  in  the  Delaware  thorn;  ihey  seldom  afford 
shoots  out  of  the  plash ;  except  where  the  top  end 
is  cut  off,  the  suckers  will  rise. 

To  attain  a  regular  distribution  of  shoots  from  the 
plashing,  we  must  be  mindful  to  give  every  stalk  laid 
a  proper  degree  of  slope  or  inclined  plane,  as  before 
observed :  by  that  means  they  are  likely  to  rise  on 
the  body  of  the  plash.  If  too  much  elevated,  the  sap 
flows  to  the  head,  and  produces  a  cluster  at  that 
point ;  and  if  laid  too  much  in  a  horizontal  position, 
the  sap  is  not  encouraged  to  follow  that  direction, 
and  will  produce  suckers  from  the  stump  only,  leav- 
ing the  plash  without  sufficient  nourishment  to  be- 
come useful,  and  which  must  consequently  decline. 

It  will  be  readily  understood,  that  the  more  gener- 
ally we  can  direct  the  flow  of  sap  through  the  whole 
body  of  the  hedge,  strength  and  uniformity  is  there- 
by promoted,  it  becoming  healthy  in  all  its  parts. 
After  that  object  is  attained,  all  that  is  necessary  is 
the  keeping  it  within  proper  limits  by  trimming. 

The  figure  represented  on  page  278  is  a  view  of  a 
section  of  newly-plashed  hedge  divested  of  foliage, 
after  having  formed  the  first  shoots  from  the  old 
stalks,  making  the  first  effort  to  fill  the  vacancies, 
and  seven  years  old  before  it  was  cut.    This  figure 


represents  a  section  of  one  th;  :  _  en  laid  aeren 

years  and  annually  trimmed,  being  in  full  foliage  at 


CALEB  KIRK   ON   HEDGING.  281 

the  time  the  drawing  was  taken.  The  first,  show- 
ing the  skeleton  of  a  hedge,  may  be  useful  to  de- 
monstrate the  subject  in  that  stage  of  its  progress 
to  maturity.  This  figure  presents  an 
end  view  of  the  section  represented  on 
page  280,  showing  a  correct  view  of 
the  shape  which  I  preferred  for  form- 
ing a  hedge  the  most  impenetrable  at 
the  bottom ;  these  views  are  elevated 
on  a  bank  from  a  foot  to  eighteen  inch- 
es high,  which  was  formed  from  re- 
peated dressings,  as  they  required  fresh 
earth  to  cover  the  grass  about  the  roots, 
which  retards  their  growth  in  a  young 
state  remarkably  if  not  kept  down.i 
This  elevation  gives  the  hedge  a  much  more  forbid- 
ding appearance  to  ungovernable  animals. 

The  trimming  may  be  done  with  a  hedge-knife 
about  eighteen  inches  long,  with  a  hooked  point,, 
used  with  one  hand,  or  w^ith  any  othfr  sharp,  light 
tool  that  may  best  suit  the  operator,  making  the 
stroke  upward  rather  than  downward :  the  root 
being  secure  in  the  ground,  it  will  not  give  way  be- 
fore the  stroke  as  it  would  in  making  the  stroke 
downward.  The  last  trimmings  of  these  speci- 
mens were  made  with  a  common  grass-scythe,  as 
the  mowers  were  cutting  the  grass  in  the  field.  I 
found,  by  applying  the  scythe  to  the  hedge,  it  was  an 
expeditious  mode,  though  rather  unhandy  to  strike 
upward ;  but  a  little  practice  overcame  the  difficulty. 

After  viewing  these  specimens  of  hedges  produced 
by  the  foregoing  mode  of  management  in  a  given 
time,  it  will  be  information.  I  have  no  doubt,  to  some, 
sufficient  to  determine  their  choice  whether  a  dead 
or  living  fence  is  to  be  preferred. 

I  made  the  choice  upon  an  imaginary  view,  with- 
out having  the  advantage  of  ocular  demonstration, 
and  without  any  idea  of  the  comparative  expense,  or 
even  attempting  to  make  any  calculation  on  the  sub* 
I.— Y 


282  AMERICA.N    HUSBANDRY. 

ject,  as  I  had  made  up  my  detennination  in  favour 
of  a  live  fence. 

There  are  now  some  4*ita  to  form  an  estimate 
upon ;  and  the  subject  is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  re- 
quire a  series  of  years  to  gain  the  desired  object ; 
yet  I  have  confidence  in  believing  it  can  be  ascer- 
tained with  much  correctness. 

The  last  number  on  this  subject  was  more  fully 
demonstrated  by  a  drawing,  not  only  to  assist  the 
young  husbandman  in  the  best  mode  of  forming  his 
live  fences,  but  to  give  a  view  of  what  may  be  con- 
sidered a  specimen  of  a  finished  hedge,  or  one  that 
has  attained  maturity — being  thirteen  years  old  from 
the  time  of  planting,  and  needing  no  farther  care  but 
that  of  annual  trimmings,  shearing  or  clipping  the 
extra  shoots  that  incline  to  enlarge  it  beyond  proper 
limits.    The  mode  has  been  already  treated  of 

The  next  inquiry  is,  What  is  the  cost  of  obtaining 
such  a  desirable  enclosure,  to  protect  and  secure  the 
labours  of  the  farmer,  and,  at  the  same  time,  on»a- 
ment  his  farm  ?  The  following  is  a  correct  esti- 
matej  as  near  as  the  nature  of  the  case  will  admit, 
calculated  for  the  latitude  or  neighbourhood  of  the 
writer  of  these  notes,  being  done  from  actual  exper- 
iments made  by  himself,  and  some  of  his  neighbour- 
ing farmers  pursuing  the  same  plan  of  hedging. 
Taking  a  given  distance,  say  one  hundred  panels  of 
post  and  rail  fence,  measuring  ten  feet  to  the  panel, 
which  is  the  usual  length,  makes  sixty  perches  and 
ten  feet  over. 

One  thousand  quicks  will  plant  that  distance  :  their  cost  from 

nursery  is $5  00 

Planting  thern  by  a  man   and  boy,  each  two  days; 

man's  wages  and  board  at  73  cts 1  .^ 

boy's      do.               do.        50   "          ....  1  00 

One  dressing  the  first  year  by  running  a  furrow  or  two 

with  the  plough 25 

And  then  a  light  dressing  with  the  hoe  (same  hand)     .  75 

Expense  of  first  year       ...  fS  50 


CALEB    KIRK    ON   HEDGING.  283 

Sd  year,  dressing  as  above         .       .       .       .  $1  00 

3d     "         do.            do 1  00 

4th  "         do.            do 1  00 

5lh   "         do.             do.    .        .        .        ,        .  1  00 

6th  "         do.             do 1  00 

5  years'  dressing $5  00 

7th  year,  trenching   to   prepare  for  plashing, 

plough,  and  horse $0  50 

Three  days'  work,  at  75  els.,  throwing  up  a 

ditch 2  25 

500  stakes,  counting  labour  as  above,  including 

timber 3  50 

Wattles,  and  cutting  them         .        .        .        .  2  CO 

One  hand  three  days  at  plashing,  at  $1      .        .  3  00 

Expense  of  7th  year         .... $11  25 

8th  year,  1  day's  work,  trimming  and  cleaning  $0  75 

9th    "                do.               do.               do.         .  75 

10th  "               do.               do.               do.         .  75 

11th"               do.               do.               do.         .  75 

12th  "               do.               do.                do.         .  75 

13th "               do.               do.               do.         .  75 

Expense  of  six  years       ....    §4  50 

$29  25 

The  foregoing  process  has  produced  such  a  hedge 
as  is  exhibited  in  the  drawing,  taken  from  a  section 
of  one  thirteen  years  old,  now  in  good  condition  and 
improving,  becoming  more  dense  every  year ;  and, 
so  far  as  I  am  able  to  form  a  judgment,  1  am  of  the 
opinion  that  seventy-five  cents  annually  applied  to 
the  trimming  will  keep  it  in  that  form  perpetually. 

The  calculation  on  this  section  of  sixty  perches 
will  afford  data  to  "Spply  to  any  quantity  of  greater- 
extent  ;  and  iho.  annual  expense  on  this,  after  the 
seventh  year,  is  uniform,  and  may  be  considered  to 
continue  so  for  as  long  a  time  as  it  is  regularly  at- 
tended to,  and  will  apply  to  any  extent,  at  one  cent 
and  a  quarter  per  rod  or  perch  of  sixteen  and  a  half 
feet. 

If  the  writer  of  these  observations  had  commen- 
ced liedging  with  the  knowledge  now  obtained  by 
experience,  one  half  his  labour  vv^ould  have  been 
saved. 


284  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

The  expense  of  a  fence  made  of  tunber,  say  poet 
and  rail,  which  is  the  most  common  in  the  vicinity 
of  this  place,  is  seventy-five  cents  for  each  panel  of 
a  four-rail  fence  to  those  who  have  their  fencing  to 
purchase  and  the  labour  to  pay  ;  that  is,  seventy-five 
dollars  for  one  hundred  panels,  which,  compared 
with  the  same  length  of  hedging,  places  the  case, 
for  a  perishable  material,  with  thirteen  years  of  the 

time  gone $75  00 

And  for  a  hedge  growing  better  every  year      29  60 

Leaving $45  50 

as  a  balance  in  favour  of  sixty  perches  and  ten  feet 
distance :  what  this  will  amount  to  on  a  large  farm 
I  shall  leave  to  the  owner's  calculation. 

I  may  farther  remark,  the  labour  of  making  live 
fence  can  be  done  by  weak  hands  if  rightly  direct- 
ed :  my  plashing  was  done  by  a  man  seventy-four 
years  of  age.  The  making  of  rails  and  handling 
theru  require  a  person  in  the  prime  of  life ;  and  ev- 
ery stage  of  the  process  of  erecting  wooden  fences 
is  laborious,  besides  the  destniction  of  much  valua- 
ble timber,  which  in  some  neighbourhoods  is  a  heavy 
tax  on  the  owner. 

Each  neighbourhood  may  make  their  calculations 
of  fences  made  of  timber.  According  to  circum- 
stances attending  the  hedge,  calculations  may  be 
relied  on,  if  the  foregoing  rules  and  remarks  are 
strictly  attended  to,  which  will  ^ply  to  either  kind 
of  thorn ;  but  it  was  the  "  Virgmia  parsley-leafed 
thorn"  of  Marshall's  catalogue  of  forest-trees  that 
was  preferred,  and  which  grows  spontaneously  from 
this  place  to  the  South  as  far  as  the  Mississippi ;  and 
I  have  no  doubt  of  its  thriving  in  a  northern  lati- 
tude, seeing  no  bad  effect  from  the  winters  of  our 
Delaware  climate,  although  I  had  a  section  plashed 
in  the  midst  of  winter  to  prove  the  consequence. 

The  hedge  may  be  considered  as  made  in  seven 
years  from  the  time  of  planting,  as  it  is  only  trim- 


ANIMAL    NUTRITION.  285 

ming  that  is  required  afterward,  which  amount*  to 
one  cent  and  a  quarter  for  each  perch  of  distance : 
the  quarter  may  be  thrown  off  if  the  cHpping  is  nev- 
er omitted  in  due  time,  as  this  lessens  tlie  labour — a 
rule  that  will  apply  through  every  operation  in  hus- 
bandry, and  should  never  be  forgotten  while  twen*y- 
five  per  cent,  is  saved,  and  often  fifty. 

ANIMAL    NUTRITION. 

Until  within  a  very  few  years,  little  attention  seems 
to  have  been  paid  to  the  subject  of  animal  nutrition: 
the  quantity  or  kind  of  food  most  suitable  for  this 
purpose  was  mostly  overlooked ;  and  if  life  were 
supported,  no  questions  were  asked  as  to  the  why 
and  the  wherefore.  So  long  as  the  population  of 
the  world  remained  few  in  number  compared  with 
the  acres  from  which  subsistence  was  to  be  drawn, 
there  was,  indeed,  little  use  in  inquiries  of  the  kind  ; 
then,  as  now  in  the  United  States,  or  on  this  Conti- 
nent generally,  a  supply  of  food  of  some  kind  was 
usually  certain.  Now  and  then,  years  of  famine  in 
particular  sections  might  occur ;  for  in  those  times, 
when  the  means  of  intercourse  were  so  limited,  the 
inhabitants  of  one  country  might  be  starving,  while 
those  at  a  distance  of  a  few  hundred  miles  were 
rioting  in  abundance  ;  but  these  calamities  were  soon 
forgotten  in  the  succeeding  plenty,  and  led  to  no 
valuable  investigation  as  to  the  nature  of  food  or 
nutrition.  The  population  fared  more  nearly  alike 
in  former  times  than  at  present,  so  far  as  food  was 
concerned ;  it  was  bulky  and  hearty,  and,  if  it  pro- 
duced disease,  it  was  of  a  different  kind  from  that 
which  now  assails  the  modern  omniverous  eater  and 
drinker,  and  in  all  cases  was  decidedly  the  same.  In 
these  days,  the  differences  in  mankind  made  by  rank 
or  wealth  are  scarcely  more  deeply  marked  than 
Ihose  observable  between  the  diseases  of  the  rich 
and  the  poor  :  differences,  in  the  main,  to  be  attribu- 
ted to  the  nature  of  their  diet  and  its  effects  on  the 
animal  system. 


286  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

Among  the  inquirers  into  the  effects  of  different 
kinds  of  food  or  animal  nutrition,  Dr.  Stark,  of  Vi- 
enna, appears  to  have  taken  the  lead ;  indeed,  he 
seems  to  have  fallen  a  martyr  to  his  zeal  in  the 
cause  of  science,  perishing,  as  he  undoubtedly  did, 
from  the  results  of  his  long-continued  experiments 
on  himself.  By  confining  himself  to  food  of  a  par- 
ticular kind  for  a  considerable  space  of  time,  he  was 
able  to  ascertain  its  actual  effect  on  the  organs  of 
digestion,  and  its  value  as  a  source  of  nourishment. 
Bread,  meat,  and  milk,  each  in  its  turn,  for  a  consid- 
erable period  was  his  sole  nutriment ;  and  the  result 
showed  that  these  things,  certainly  among  the  most 
nutritive  of  substances,  could  not  maintain  the  vig- 
our of  the  body,  or  even  life  itself,  for  but  a  limited 
time.  In  this  respect  man  differs  from  the  majority 
of  animals  ;  his  organization  is  such  as  to  admit  and 
even  require  a  variety  of  food  ;  while  many  animals 
are,  by  a  law  of  their  natures,  confined  to  a  particu- 
lar kind,  as  flesh  or  vegetables. 

The  French  physiologists,  Magendie  and  his  coad- 
jutors, followed  up  the  experiments  of  Stark,  not  on 
themselves,  but  on  animals ;  and  found  they  could 
not  long  survive  on  food,  however  nutritious  in  itself, 
unless  they  received  a  large  portion  of  that  on  which 
they  naturally  subsist.  Thus  a  dog  fed  on  white 
sugar  and  water  alone  soon  became  emaciated,  lost 
his  appetite  and  sight,  and  perished.  Few  substan- 
ces can  be  more  nutritive  than  sugar,  but  it  lacked 
the  power  of  properly  distending  the  stomach  and 
exciting  its  digestive  energies.  Dogs  fed  on  pure 
wheat  bread  and  water  lived  but  little  longer ;  and 
rabbits,  which  eat  a  variety  of  vegetables,  such  as 
clover,  cabbage,  barley,  corn,  and  carrots,  were  una- 
ble to  live  for  any  time  when  confined  to  one  of 
these.  It  was  found  that  animals,  when  much  ema- 
ciated and  reduced  by  one  kind  of  food,  were  not  of 
ten  restored  by  another,  though  they  frequently  par 
took  of  it  with  greediness — the  tone  of  the  stomacb 
could  not  be  regained. 


ANIMAL   NUTRITION.  287 

To  facilitate  proper  digestion  of  food  by  the  ani- 
mal or  man,  it  is  necessary  that,  with  the  nutritive 
part,  substances  more  bulky,  or  containing  little  nu- 
tritive power,  should  at  the  same  time  be  taken  into 
the  stomach.  An  experiment  has  been  made  in 
England  on  the  feeding  of  horses,  which  demon- 
strates this  fact  most  conclusively.  Some  cavalry 
horses  were  selected;  and  while  one  part  of  them 
received  sugar  and  water  alone,  the  other  part  had 
a  few  pounds  of  cut  straw  added  to  their  portion  of 
sugar  and  drink.  Those  which  received  the  sugar 
alone  fell  away  rapidly,  while  those  fed  with  the 
sugar  and  straw  throve  as  perceptibly  ;  and  a  repe- 
tition of  the  experiment  on  another  set  of  animals 
showed  the  same  result.  In  man,  the  rich  and  high- 
seasoned  food,  the  fine  flour  and  the  fat  meat,  are  to 
the  stomach  what  pure  wheat  or  sugar  would  be  to 
the  stomach  of  the  horse.  There  is  much  nutriment, 
but  little  that  can  facilitate  digestion.  A  man  swal- 
lows nourishment  enough  for  half  a  dozen ;  but,  in- 
stead of  its  producing  a  good  effect,  his  stomach  be- 
comes disordered,  its  functions  debilitated,  and  in 
the  midst  of  plenty  he  becomes  dyspeptic,  and  in- 
capable of  enjoying  anything.  The  man  who  lives 
on  common  food,  sound  and  sufficiently  nutritious, 
is  rarely  troubled  with  the  evils  that  press  so  heavi- 
ly on  him  who,  regardless  of  the  law  of  nature,  takes 
more  nutriment  and  less  substance  than  is  consistent 
with  a  healthy  tone  of  the  digestive  powers. 

Perhaps- the  best  estimate  of  the  time  required  for 
the  digestion  of  the  various  substances  used  as  food 
by  man,  and  their  general  effect  on  the  animal  or- 
ganization, is  given  in  the  book  of  Dr.  Beaumont, 
from  experiments  made  on  the  living  subject,  and 
under  circumstances  more  favourable  to  correctness 
than  are  known  to  have  ever  before  existed.  We 
give  below  a  table  of  the  results  obtained  by  him, 
not  as  a  mere  matter  of  curiosity,  but  as  furnishing 
information  of  the  most  valuable  kind  in  connexion 


28S 


AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 


with  animal  nutrition.  The  first  colamn  Indicates 
the  substance  taken  into  the  stomach ;  the  last  the 
time  required  for  its  digestion.     ^ 


Boiled  rice     . 

Sago,  tapioca,  barley,  and 

boiled  milk 
Tripe  and  pigs'  feet 
Fowl*,  beef's  liver 
Hard  eegs 
Soft    do. 
Custard 

Trout,  boiled  or  fried 
Other  fresh  fish     . 
Beef,  rare-roasted  . 
Do.   dry-roasiefl    . 
Salt  beef,  with  mustard 
Pickled  pork. 
Raw        do.  . 


1  00 

2  15 

1  00 

2  30 

3  30 
3  00 

2  45 

1  30 

3  00 
3  00 

3  30 

2  30 

4  30 

3  00 


k.  m. 

Mutton,  fresh         .        .3  15 
Veal  .    4  00 

Wheat  bread,  fresh  baked  3  30 
Corn  bread  .         .     3  15 

Sponge  cake .        .        .    2  30 
Succotash  .         .    3  45 

Apple-dumpling     .        .    3  00 
Apples,  sour  and  mellow   2  00 
Do.     sweet  and  mellow  I  ."M) 
Parsnips,  boiled     .        .     2  .10 


Potatoes,    do 

Do.,      roasted 
Raw  cabbage 
Raw,  with  vinega 
Cabbage,  boiled 


Dr.  Beaumont  found  that  the  envelope  of  the  seeds 
of  the  apple  and  the  skins  of  potatoes  were  scarcely 
acted  upon  by  the  gastric  juice,  and  that  they  were 
consequently  indigestible.  As  a  whole,  it  would 
seem  that  animal  aliments  are  digested  easier  than 
vegetable  ones ;  but  his  experiments  show  conclu- 
sively, that,  whatever  the  kind  of  food,  the  ultimate 
principle  of  nutrition,  or  the  chyle,  is  the  same  in  all 
eases. 

Digestion  is  much  facilitated  by  the  particles  of 
food  being  made  fine  when  taken  into  the  stomach, 
and  the  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  furnished  is 
greater.  Individuals,  therefore,  in  whom  -the  digest- 
ive powers  are  weakened,  find  a  benefit  in  thorough- 
ly masticating  or  chewing  their  food.  This  princi- 
ple is  of  great  importance  in  the  feeding  or  fattening 
of  animals,  and  shows  the  necessity  of  grinding  or 
cooking  the  materials  given  them  if  we  would  have 
them  derive  the  full  benefit  of  the  nutritive  matter 
contained. 

The  experiments  of  Dr.  Beaumont  farther  prove, 
that  when  food  of  great  nutritive  powers  is  taken 


ON    THE    USE    OF    GYPSUM.  289 

into  the  stomach  in  large  quantities,  the  functions  of 
that  organ. become  evidently  clogged,  and  that  usual- 
ly, in  eaung,  a  larger  quantity  of  nutritive  matter  is 
received  than  is  beneficial.  A  certain  quantity  of 
solid  food,  or  food  of  a  bulky  nature,  he  found  to  be 
essential  to  easy  digestion  and  a  proper  separation 
of  the  nutritive  principle.  This  agrees  with  the 
fact  that  horses  or  cattle  require  cut  straw  or  hay 
mixed  with  their  grain,  both  to  ensure  mastication, 
and  to  furnish  the  necessary  bulk  of  solid  matter  in 
the  stomach.  It  is  a  common  saying  with  farmers, 
that  an  ox,  when  feeding  on  meal,  must  be  furnished 
with  a  lock  of  hay  to  make  him  a  cud.  They  re- 
quire more  than  this  ;  and  the  reason,  from  what  has 
been  said  above,  is  perfectly  obvious. 

ON   THE    USE    OP   GYPSUM. 

There  is  no  longer  any  doubt  in  our  mind  of  the 
advantage  of  applying  gypsum  in  the  spring  to  all 
our  meadow-lands  which  are  beyond  the  influence 
of  the  sea  atmosphere,  and  which  are  habitually  dry. 
There  are  instances  recorded,  to  be  sure,  of  its  not 
producing  perceptible  benefit  the  first  year;  and 
some  instances  where  it  did  not  seem  to  operate 
even  the  second  year,  and  yet  ultimately  developed 
its  fertilizing  properties. 

We  do  not  design  now  to  discuss  the  question  how 
gypsum  does  operate,  but  to  inquire  and  state,  from 
the  facts  within  our  reach,  to  what  crops  its  applica- 
tion is  particularly  beneficial ;  on  what  soils  its  ef- 
fects appear  to  be  greatest ;  how  much  should  be 
applied  to  the  acre,  and  at  what  season  it  is  best  ap- 
plied. We  are  satisfied,  that  if  the  value  of  gypsum 
were  better  known,  it  would  be  much  more  exten- 
sively used  than  it  is  ;  and  that,  the  more  it  is  used, 
the  greater  will  be  our  agricultural  surplus. 

Gypsum,  according  to  Chaptal,  consists  of 
L— Z 


290  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

Pure  calcareous  earth  or  lime       ...       30  parts,  or  33 
Sulphuric  acid 32     "         43 

Crystallized  water ...  .        .        38     "         24 

100  100 

It  requires  from  430  to  500  times  its  weight  of 
water  to  dissolve  it.  When  pure,  it  does  not  effer- 
vesce with  acids  ;  it  is  insipid  in  taste,  and  free  from 
smell.  A  simple  mode  of  trying  its  quality  consists 
in  putting  a  quantity  of  it  pulverized  into  a  dry  pot 
over  the  fire,  and  when  heated  it  gives  out  a  sul- 
phurous smell.  If  the  ebullition  or  bubbling  which 
then  takes  place  be  considerable,  the  plaster  is  good ; 
but  if  not,  it  is  considered  indifferent ;  and  if  it  re- 
main motionless,  like  sand,  it  is  not  thought  to  be 
worth  anything.  Its  colour  is  white,  gray,  or  blue. 
Its  effects  in  benefiting  agriculture  have  been  great- 
est in  Germany  and  in  the  United  States.  Its  bene- 
fits in  Great  Britain  and  France  have  been  less  ob- 
vious. 

The  soils  upon  which  gypsum  operates  most  beneficial 
ly  are  the  light,  dry,  sandy,  and  gravelly.  Upon 
soils  containing  little  or  no  vegetable  matter,  its  ef- 
fect is  trifling  r  but  when  these  lands  are  dressed 
with  dung,  the  gypsum  then  produces  a  great  effect ; 
and,  the  dung  being  present,  the  poorer  the  land,  the 
greater  its  benefits.  It  seldom  produces  any  sensi- 
ble effect  upon  wet  grounds,  and  frequently  none 
upon  stiff  clays. 

The  crops  which  are  most  benefited  by  gypsum  are 
the  clovers,  lucerne,  Indian  corn,  and  pease.  There 
are  some  few  cases  noticed  of  its  being  found  ben- 
eficial to  wheat  and  other  small  grains  ;  but  it  is  the 
generally  received  opinion  that  it  4oes  not  operate 
directly  on  these.  Gypsum,  however,  may  be  made 
indirectly  beneficial  to  all  crops  which  are  grown 
upon  a  clover  lay,  by  causing  a  greater  growth  of 
clover,  which  becomes  food  for  the  crop  which  fol- 
lows, and  which  is  abundant  in  proportion  to  the 


ON    THE    USE    OF    GYPSUM.  291 

rankness  of  the  previous  clover.  Its  effect  upon 
turnips  is  doubtful ;  and  some  will  not  allow  that  it 
is  beneficial  to  potatoes.  Davy  lays  it  down  as  a 
fact,  that  it  is  most  beneficial  to  those  plants  which 
always  afford  it  on  analysis ;  and  the  small  grains 
are  not  found  to  contain  it  at  all.  Many  instances 
are  given  where  its  application  has  doubled  and 
tripled  the  clover-crop. 

The  quantity  which  should  he  applied  to  the.Mcre  is  a 
point  quite  unsettled ;  and  it  should  probably  be  va- 
ried according  to  soil  and  circumstances.  John 
Taylor,  of  Virginia,  and  Judge  Peters,  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, concurred  in  opinion,  that  on  lands  where  it  was 
applied  annually,  one  bushel  to  an  acre  was  an  ample 
dressing.  In  Europe  it  is  recommended  to  dress 
with  five  or  six  bushels  to  the  acre.  We  have  gen- 
erally sown  but  a  bushel ;  but  last  spring,  by  way  of 
experiment,  we  doubled  the  dressing  on  a  portion  of 
a  meadow,  and  found  the  grass  there  much  the  heav- 
iest. It  is  advisable  to  try  it  in  different  quantities, 
and  to  note  the  result  of  each,  as  a  guide  to  future 
practice. 

The  time  of  applying  gypsum  is  generally  in  the 
spring,  sometimes  as  late  as  May  or  June.  The 
writer  of  British  Husbandry  recommends,  with  much 
plausibility,  that  gypsum  be  applied  to  clovers  semi- 
annually, viz.,  soon  after  the  crop  is  mown  in  sum- 
mer, and  in  the  spring  just  after  the  plants  have  be- 
gun to  shoot.  We  shall  be  thankful  for  memoranda 
of  an}"^  experiments  that  may  have  been  made  in  this 
practice  in  our  own  country,  and  also  whether  it 
produces  a  better  effect  when  laid  on  in  dry  than  in  wet 
weather.  The  work  from  which  we  have  just  quo- 
ted dwells  with  emphasis  on  the  importance  of  hav- 
ing the  gypsum  attach  to  and  remain  upon  the  leaves 
of  the  young  plants,  and  repeats  the  charge  to  sow 
it  when  the  leaves  are  wet  with  dew  or  with  a  re- 
cent light  rain,  and  never  just  preceding  or  during  a 
rain.     Professor  Low  says  that  mineral  substances, 


292  AMERICAN  HUSBANDRY. 

as  powdered  lirae  and  gypsum,  are  absorbed  through 
the  pores  of  leaves  when  scattered  upon  them.  A 
watery  temperature,  it  is  alleged,  at  least  arrests  its 
effects,  and  seems  to  suppress  them  altogether  if  the 
gypsum  has  been  calcined,  a  process  which  it  is 
sometimes  subjected  to,  to  facilitate  its  reduction  to 
powder.  Burning,  however,  merely  expels  the  crys- 
taUized  water,  without  otherwise  altering  the  gyp- 
sum, the  strongest  heat  not  being  sufficient  to  expel 
the  sulphuric  acid.  When  applied  to  tillage-crops, 
it  should  be  either  sown  broadcast  in  spring,  or  scat- 
tered upon  the  hills  or  drills  of  the  growmg  crop. 
Upon  the  principle  quoted  above,  the  latter  would 
seem  to  be  the  better  practice  in  regard  to  hoed 
crops ;  though  our  mode  of  applying  it  to  com  has 
been  to  sow  it  broadcast  before  the  ground  is  har- 
rowed for  seeding.  When  applied  at  the  rate  of  five 
or  six  bushels  to  the  acre,  the  effects  of  a  dressing 
have  sometimes  continued  some  four  or  five  years. 
The  most  common  practice  is  to  sow  it  annually 
upon  the  crops  and  grounds  likely  to  be  benefited  by 
it,  and  to  sow  it  in  quantities  from  one  bushel  to  two 
bushels  on  the  acre. 

To  determine  the  capacity  of  gypsum  for  absorb- 
ing moisture,  an  ounce  and  a  half,  in  fine  powder, 
was  exposed  to  the  air  during  three  foggy  nights, 
and  afterward  carefully  weighed,  when  it  was  found 
to  have  gained  not  quite  half  a  grain  in  weight. 
This  fact  overthrows  the  theory  that  plaster  is  ben- 
eficial on  account  of  its  capacity  and  tendency  to 
imbibe  moisture  from  the  atmosphere. 

The  benefits  of  gypsum  are  so  palpable  in  our 
country  upon  clover  and  some  other  crops,  and  indi 
rectly  upon  nearly  all,  that  we  cannot  but  hope  these 
remarks  will  serve  to  extend  its  use  upon  our  fanns, 
and  to  indftce  many  to  try  it  who  are  experimentally 
ignorant  of  its  fertilizing  powers. 


CHOKED   CATTLE.  293 

CHOKED    CATTLE. 

The  facts  that  more  attention  is  now  paid  to  the 
rearing  of  cattle  and  the  introduction  of  improved 
breeds  than  formerly,  and  that  many  valuable  ani- 
mals are  yearly  lost  from  obstructions  in  the  throat 
or  by  choking,  which  might  be  saved  were  proper 
measures  adopted,  have  induced  us  to  present  to  our 
readers  drawings  of  a  cattle-probang  or  throat-tube, 
from  the  work  on  cattle  by  the  Useful  Knowledge 
Society,  and  a  condensed  account  of  the  best  meth- 
ods of  removing  obstructions  known  at  the  present 
day.  We  give  these  engravings  the  more  willingly, 
as  the  tube  is  found  one  of  the  most  efficient  and 
immediate  agents  of  giving  relief  in  hoven  or  bloat 
that  has  yet  been  devised,  and,  where  it  can  be  had, 
far  preferable  to  the  knife-  to  which  farmers  in  this 
disease  ai'e  frequently  compelled  to  resort. 

bo  a     FL92 


These  cuts  will  give  a  sufficfent  idea  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  most  useful  probang  or  oesophagus- 
tube,  and  which  should  be  in  the  possession  of  every 
farmer  who  breeds  cattle  extensively ;  t)r,  where 
this  is  not  the  case,  one  might  answer  for  several 
neighbouring  farmers.  No  man,  however,  who 
pretends  to  the  character  of  farrier  or  veterinarian, 
should  be  without  these  or  similar  instmments. 


294  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

Fig.  1.  a.  The  tube  made  of  simple  leatlier,  or  of 
leather  covering  a  canal  of  spiral  wire.  It  is  about 
four  feet  and  a  half  in  length,  so  as  to  reach  from 
tlje  mouth  to  the  rumen  or  stomach,  leaving  a  suffi- 
cient portion  outside  the  mouth  to  be  firmly  grasped. 

b.  'I  he  stiiett  or  rod,  represented  as  introduced 
into  the  tube,  and  running  the  whole  length  of  it.  It 
gives  greater  firmness  and  strength  to  the  tube  when 
it  is  either  passed  into  the  stomach  in  cases  of  hoove, 
or  used  to  force  obstructions  down  the  gullet. 

c.  The  handle  of  the  stiiett. 

d.  A  hollow  piece  of  wood  running  freely  upon 
the  stiiett,  and  placed  between  the  handle  of  the 
stiiett  and  the  round  extremity  of  the  tube.  The 
stiiett  is  longer  than  the  tube  by  the  extent  of  this 
piece  of  wood,  but  is  prevented  from  protruding  by 
the  interposition  of  this  slider  on  the  handle.  The 
stiiett  may  be  miroduced  at  either  end  of  the  tube. 
It  is  usually  inserted  at  e  when  tlie  instrument  is 
used  to  force  anything  down  the  throat,  because  the 
bulb  at  the  other  end  has  a  flat,  or,  rather,  concave 
surface,  and  can  therefore  act  with  more  certainty 
and  power  on  the  obstruction  in  the  throat. 

e.  The  end  of  tfie  tube  which  is  introduced  into 
the  paunch  in  cases  of  hoove.  It  is  rounded  to  per- 
mit it  to  be  more  easily  forced  through  the  pillars 
or  roof  of  the  paunch,  and  is  perforated  with  holes 
for  the  escape  of  the  gas  with  which  the  stomach 
may  be  distended. 

Fig.  2  represents  the  whalebone  stiiett  (any  tough 
elastic  wood  will  do  for  the  rod  when  whalebone 
cannot  be  had),  with  the  hollow  piece  of  wood  run- 
ning upon  it,  and  shows  how  easily  that  may  be 
withdrawn  when  the  stiiett  is  taken  from  the  tube. 
This  piece  of  wood  taken  off,  the  stiiett  will  project 
a  little  at  the  end  of  the  tube ;  and  by  moving  the 
stiiett  up  and  down  in  the  tube,  this  may  be  made 
to  act  on  the  obstructing  body  in  the  manner,  and 
with  somewhat  the  force  of  a  small  hammer. 


CHOKED    CATTLE.  295 

Fig.  3  will  be  presently  described. 

Fig.  4  is  a  piece  of  strong,  thick  wood,  widest  in 
the  centre,  and  perforated  for  the  passage  of  the 
tube.  Its  use  is  to  keep  the  mouth  open  during  the 
use  of  tlie  probatig;  and  it  is  secured  by  leather 
straps  nailed  to  the  extremities,  and  buckled  round 
the  horns.  The  farmer  should  have  another  mouth- 
piece, with  a  central  hole  that  will  admit  the  passage 
of  a  small  hand.  He  will  thus  be  enabled  to  grasp 
and  remove  any  obstruction  that  has  not  descended 
beyond  the  commencement  of  the  gullet. 

Let  it  be  supposed  that  a  cow  has  swallowed  a 
potato  or  turnip  too  large  to  descend  the  gullet,  and 
thus  arrested  in  its  progress,  and  evidently  seen  at 
a  certain  distance  down  the  throat.  The  farmer 
should  have  immediate  recourse  to  the  tube,  intro- 
ducing the  flatter  end,  and  using  moderate  force. 
If  the  body  yields  to  this,  he  is  justified  in  pushing 
it  into  the  chest ;  but  if  it  is  with  difficulty  pushed 
on,  the  operator  should  instantly  cease  attempting 
to  drive  it  down,  for  the  fibres  of  the  gullet  soon  be- 
come irritated  by  distention,  and  grasp  the  foreign 
substance,  as  it  were,  spasmodically.  The  gullet 
also  itself  becomes  smaller  as  soon  as  it  enters  the 
thorax,  and  a  substance  that  moves  easily  in  the 
upper  part  can  scarcely  be  moved  at  ill  in  the  lower 
portion. 

But  if  it  cannot  be  driven  down,  it  may  perhaps  be 
solicited  or  drawn  upward.  The  fibres  of  the  gullet 
have  allowed  the  substance  to  pass  them,  and  are 
somewhat  weakened  by  the  unnatural  distention; 
and,  not  having  recovered  their  tone,  they  may  yield 
again.  The  internal  coat  of  the  gullet  is  smooth  and 
yielding :  it  may,  however,  be  made  more  so,  and 
some  effect  may  also  be  produced  on  the  surface  of 
the  obstructing  body.  Half  a  pint  of  olive  oil  should 
be  poured  down,  a  persevering  attempt  being  made 
by  the  fingers  externally  to  give  the  body  a  retro- 
grade motion.    When  moved  sufficiently  upward,  it 


296  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

may  be  drawn  out  by  the  hand,  introduced  through 
the  large  mouth-piece. 

If  the  obstnicting  body  cannot  be  moved  in  this 
way,  recourse  may  be  had  to  the  corkscrew  tube, 
Fig.  3,  in  the  cut. 

a.  The  leather  tube  as  before,  but  somewhat  lar- 
ger, longer,  and  stronger,  with  the  upper  part,  for 
the  purpose  of  additional  strength,  sometimes  of 
brass. 

b.  The  handle  of  the  stilett,  that  runs  through  it 
as  through  the  other  tube. 

c.  The  piece  of  wood  sliding  on  the  stilett.  In 
consequence  of  the  corkscrew  termination,  this  mast 
be  in  two  parts,  easily  removed.  They  are  here 
removed,  and  one  of  them  hangs  down,  suspended 
by  a  string.  When  removed,  they  allow  the  point 
of  the  stilett  to  project  two  or  three  inches. 

d.  The  bulb  which  is  introduced  through  the 
mouth-piece.  It  is  larger  than  those  on  the  other 
tube,  but  not  so  large  as  the  distended  gullet. 

e.  A  corkscrew  fixed  at  the  end  of  the  stilett ;  and 
which,  coming  out  at  the  centre  of  the  knob,  cannot 
possibly  wound  the  gullet. 

When  this  instrument  is  used,  the  screw  is  re- 
tracted within  the  knob,  and  secured  by  placing  the 
pieces  of  wood  c  on  the  handle  of  the  stilett.  The 
instrument  is  then  introduced  through  the  mouth- 
piece, and  forced  down  the  throat  until  it  reaches  the 
obstruction.  The  pieces  of  wood  are  then  taken  off, 
and  the  screw,  by  turning  the  handle,  is  worked  into 
the  obstructing  body  as  the  common  corkscrew  into 
a  cork.  If  the  potato  or  turnip  is  fresh  and  sound, 
a  great  purchase  is  thus  obtained,  and  in  most  in- 
stances the  root  may  be  thus  drawn  out  and  got  rid 
of;  but  if  only  a  portion  is  brought  away,  some  good 
has  been  done,  and  the  screw  sliould  be  returned  as 
long  as  it  will  take  hold.  The  substance  will  now 
probably  yield  to  the  pressure  of  the  first  probang, 
and  in  a  crushed  state   pass  into  the  stomach. 


CHOKED    CATTLE.  297 

Sometimes,  too,  the  siilett  of  the  first  tube,  the  slide 
being  taken  off,  can  be  advantageously  used  as  the 
rod  of  a  gun,  forcing  the  obstruction  down  by  re- 
peated percussions. 

Should  these  contrivances  fail,  and  the  obstruction 
still  remain,  bleeding,  sometimes  carried  to  absolute 
fainting,  may  be  resorted  to,  in  preference  to  crush- 
ing the  root  by  external  violence,  though  even  this  is 
sometimes  admissible.  There  is  not  a  more  pow- 
erful relaxant  of  the  muscles  than  bleeding;  and 
during  this  momentary  relaxation  the  operator  may 
frequently  move  the  body — upward,  if  possible  and 
in  preference,  but  downward  if  it  will  not  come  up. 
If  the  obstruction  can  neither  be  forced  down  nor 
removed  by  crushing,  the  animal  must  be  lost  un- 
less the  operation  of  asophagotomy  be  resorted  to, 
or  the  obstruction  cut  down  upon,  and  then  removed 
through  the  opening.  The  veterinary  surgeon  will 
here  find  no  difficulty,  and  may  proceed  with  confi- 
dence. 

The  animal  should  be  cast,  thrown^  on  the  right 
side,  the  head  stretched  out,  and  lying  as  flat  as  the 
horns  will  permit.  The  point  of  obstruction  will  be 
seen  at  once.  An  opening  is  now  made  through  the 
skin,  the  cellular  substance  a  Uttle  dissected  away, 
the  gullet  opened,  and  the  obstruction  removed. 
The  edges  of  the  gullet  should  then  be  brought  to- 
gether and  confined  with  two  stitches,  and  the  skin 
secured  in  the  same  way.  The  beast  should  have 
nothing  but  gruel  for  two  or  three  days,  then  gruel 
and  mashes  may  be  allowed,  and  in  a  fortnight  or 
three  weeks  the  wound  will  generally  be  healed. 

If  the  root  has  passed  into  the  thorax  before  it  is 
observed,  or  the  operator  has  been  called,  the  chances 
of  saving  the  animal  are  much  diminished.  The  ob- 
struction must  be  either  drawn  up  or  pushed  down 
without  delay ;  and  great  force  is  here  allowable ;  for, 
if  it  be  not  overcome,  the  auimal  will  surely  die.  Cat- 
tle that  have  once  been  choked  are  found  more  liable 


298  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

than  others  to  suffer  agr.in;  and  it  will  therefore  be 
generally  advisable  to  fit  them  for  the  butcher  as 
early  as  possible. 

The  tube  may  be  made  of  thin,  firm  sole-leather ; 
or,  if  of  upper-leather,  it  may  be  sowed  over  a  spiral 
tube  of  small  flexible  wire.  It  may  be  three  fourths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  with  a  suitable  bore,  and  the 
bulb  may  be  one  and  a  quarter  or  one  and  a  half  inches 
in  diameter.  The  stiffness  of  the  tube  is  greatly 
aided,  when  necessary,  by  the  introduction  of  the 
rod  or  stilett. 

Every  one  has  lost  some  animals  which  in  all 
probability  might  have  been  saved  by  the  cheap  and 
simple  apparatus  we  have  here  described,  while 
many  have  perished  by  quackery  or  the  ill-judged  ef- 
forts made  to  save  them.  It  is  but  a  few  days  since 
a  gentleman  of  our  acquaintance  lost  a  cow  that  was 
choked  with  a  potato.  Some  little  eflibrt  had  been 
made  to  remove  it,  when  he  was  told  that  a  quantity 
of  soap  put  down  would  have  the  desired  effect,  and 
the  informaiit  undertook  to  see  it  administered. 
The  required  quantity  was  prepared  and  poured 
down,  when  the  animal  died  almost  instantly.  The 
probability  is,  that  more  was  given  than  the  gullet 
could  contain,  and  that  the  first  breath,  by  drawing 
the  fluid  soap  into  the  lungs,  produced  instant  suflfo- 
cation.  Soap,  too,  is  a  dangerous  remedy  for  an- 
other reason :  it  is  very  rare  that  the  alkali  is  so 
thoroughly  neutralized  as  not  to  retain  some  caus- 
ticity ;  and,  when  put  down  the  gullet,  if  it  remains 
a  considerable  time  in  one  place,  it  excoriates  the 
inner  membrane,  or  in  some  cases  eats  through  the 
gullet,  and  thus  destroys  the  animal.  Oil,  as  above 
directed,  is  better  in  all  cases  than  soap ;  and  no 
farmer  should  intnist  another  with  the  care  of  a  dis- 
eased animal,  unless  he  has  reason  to  believe  that  he 
possesses  some  knowledge  of  the  structure,  forma- 
tion, and  capacity  of  the  part  diseased.  We  have 
known  animals  killed  by  thrusting  a  stick  so  far  iau» 


SPECIFIC  FOOD  IN  SOILS   FOR  PLANTS.     299 

the  stomach  as  to  perforate  its  walls ;  and  this  was 
owing  to  ignorance  of  the  distance  between  the 
mouth  and  the  stomach.  If  regard  to  the  sufferings 
of  the  animal  does  not  influence  them,  the  fact  that 
such  cruel  treatment  must  be  a  source  of  loss  should 
induce  farmers  to  adopt  a  better  and  more  scientific 
mode  of  treatment. 

SPECIFIC  FOOD  IN  SOILS  FOR  PLANTS. 

That  soils  the  most  favourable  for  the  growth  of 
plants  of  any  particular  kind  may,  unless  attention 
is  paid  to  furnishing  a  supply  of  the  food  in  which 
such  plants  delight,  become  exhausted  and  unfit  for 
their  production,  is  a  fact  which  a  multitude  of  ex- 
periments fully  proves,  and  which  seems  to  be  gen- 
erally admitted.  The  earths  themselves,  silex,  lime, 
and  clay,  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  the  food  of  plants, 
though  minute  portions  of  them  are  taken  up  by  the 
Vfessels  and  appropriated  to  the  structure  of  the 
firmer  parts.  The  earths  seem  only  to  serve  as  a 
reservoir  for  the  nutritive  matter;  or  perhaps  they 
constitute  rather  the  fountain  of  that  electro-mag- 
netic agency  which  has  been  proved  so  efficient,  if 
not,  indeed,  the  sole  cause  of  vegetation. 

We  may  reduce  plants  to  their  elements  by  cal- 
cination, and  we  may  examine  the  products  given 
by  their  decomposition,  but  we  only  discover  the 
parts  that  are  left:  the  power  that  collected  their 
particles  has  ceased  to  operate ;  and  we  should  be 
almost  as  well  qualified  to  judge  of  what  the  human 
body  can  perform,  and  of  the  nature  of  its  nutrition 
and  growth,  from  a  post  mortem  examination,  as  to 
tiecide  on  these  same  functions  in  a  living  plant 
from  an  examination  of  the  remains  of  a  dead  one. 
Chymistry  has  performed  wonders,  and  from  its  in- 
valuable aid  much  more  may  be  expected ;  but  the 
causes  that  change  the  qualities  of  a  soil,  and,  of 
course,  the  whole  character  of  its  vegetation,  are  of 
such  a  nature,  and,  perhaps,  so  slight  or  evanescent, 


300  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

as  to  escape  or  be  overlooked  in  the  scrutiny  of  the 
most  competent  observer. 

The  fact  that,  by  continued  cultivation  or  crop- 
ping, the  soil  becomes  exhausted  of  the  food  of 
plants  or  incapable  of  producing  them,  is  too  evi- 
dent to  be  denied ;  and  that  in  some  cases  a  good 
growth  of  a  particular  kind  of  plant  may  be  had, 
when  the  one  previously  cultivated  has  run  out, 
seems  equally  certain.  The  trees  of  our  forests,  no 
less  than  the  plants  cultivated  for  food,  seem  subject 
to  this  law,  and  the  instances  that  prove  such  ten- 
dency to  change  abound  in  every  part  of  our  coun- 
try. In  some  places,  where  the  timber  on  large 
tracts  of  land  has  been  felled  and  allowed  to  spring 
up  again  without  intervening  cultivation,  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  find  the  young  growth  consisting  of 
entirely  different  varieties  from  those  that  first  oc- 
cupied'the  soil;  and  in  some  places,  where  the  soil 
has  been  cultivated  for  years  and  then  left  to  itse|^ 
the  same  result  of  a  total  change  of  timber  has  en- 
sued. In  many  places  in  Western  New- York, 
where  the  original  growth  was  beech  or  even  hem- 
lock, we  have  seen,  when  this  has  been  removed 
and  the  soil  left  to  itself,  the  whole  surface  covered 
with  cherry,  laurel,  and  other  trees,  not  one  of  which 
was  known  previously  to  exist  near  the  place.       ; 

In  Virginia  and  the  states  adjoining,  it  is  well 
known,  and  the  fact  has  frequently  been  noticed, 
that  where  the  original  growth  is  pine,  as  it  is  on  a 
very  large  part  of  the  low  country,  when  this  is 
cleared  off,  the  succeeding  growth  of  timber  is  never 
pine,  but  a  mixture  of  the  hard  woods,  principally 
oak,  chestnut,  and  their  congeners.  On  the  contra- 
ry, where  these  latter  formed  the  original  growth, 
the  succeeding  one  is  most  usually  pine,  growing  up 
in  dense  and  almost  impenetrable  thickets.  In  some 
of  the  oldest-settled  parts  of  that  region,  this  process 
has  been  repeated  several  times  on  the  same  lands  ; 
the  former,  but  most  unskilful  practice  in  farming 


SPECIFIC  FOOD  IN  SOILS  FOR  PLANTS.     301 

having  been  to  crop  a  piece  of  land  until  completely 
exhausted,  and  then  leave  it  to  the  recuperative  ef- 
forts of  nature,  while  new  lands  were  cleared  and 
put  under  cultivation. 

In  the  valuable  papers  of  Dr.  Hildreth  on  the  coal 
region  of  the  West,  and  in  tlie  notes  of  a  Naturalist, 
both  to  be  found  in  Sillinn^n'is  Journal,  are  notices 
of  large  tracts  on  which  nothing  but  a  heavy  growth 
of  white  oak  and  its  kindred  trees  are  found,  and 
the  soil  of  which  is  full  of  pitch-pine  knots,  scattered 
in  the  greatest  profusion  over  large  districts,  on 
which  a  pine-tree  has  not  been  seen  since  the  dis 
covery  of  the  country.  The  inference  is  irresistible, 
that,  owing  to  some  unexplained  cause,  these  im- 
mense forests  have  perished,  and  their  place  has 
been  occupied  by  the  magnificent  oak  woods  that 
now  form  so  conspicuous  a  feature  of  these  districts. 
So  plentiful  are  these  pine  remains  in  some  places, 
that  the  collecting  and  burning  them  for  tar  has  been 
a  profitable  business. 

That  there  is  the  same  tendency  in  cultivated 
plants  to  change,  or  to  run  out  and  be  succeeded  by 
others,  is  well  known  to  every  one.  Continued  care 
is  required  to  keep  meadows  that  lie  long  in  grass 
from  becoming  filled  with  other  and  worthless  vari- 
eties; and  reseeding  and  frequent  manurings  are 
necessary  to  prevent  the  kinds  desired  in  the  soil 
from  running  out.  So  soils  on  which  the  same  crop 
is  too  frequently  raised  will  show  a  tendency  to 
throw  it  off  in  the  inferior  value  of  the  crop  pro- 
duced. New-England  and  Eastern  New-York  were 
once  the  best  of  wheat-growing  districts,  but  have 
long  since  ceased  to  be  such ;  and  the  most  moment- 
ous question  that  can  be  asked  by  the  Western 
farmer  is,  will  that  region,  now  so  productive,  ex- 
hibit a  similar  decline  1  There  can  be  no  reason  to 
doubt  that  it  will,  unless  an  improved  and  more  ra- 
tional mode  of  farming  be  adopted  to  prevent  it. 
As  illustrating  the  changes  that  take  place  in  soils 


302  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

from  cultivation,  rendering  them  unfit  for  plant?  of  a 
particular  kind,  we  make  the  follou  ng  extracts  from 
a  communication  in  the  i-'ultiviitor  of  April,  1838. 
It  is  from  the  pen  of  a  gc.itlemaa  of  Suffolk  county, 
Long  Island : 

"  With  us,  wheat  was  raised  from  the  first  settling 
of  the  county  until  1780  or  1790;  it  then  failed. 
About  that  time  we  began  to  get  fish  (for  manuring), 
which  were  used  for  rye,  and  did  well.  It  was  no 
uncommon  thing  to  have  40  bushels  to  the  acre.  For 
wheat  they  did  not  answer,  neither  did  any  other 
manure.  Farmers,  as  a  general  thing,  gave  up  try- 
ing to  raise  it.  At  the  present  time,  wheat  is  a  far 
more  certain  crop  than  rye,  and  has  been  for  years 
past.  Rye  has  been  failing  for  some  time,  and  lat- 
terly many  pieces  have  been  cut  merely  for  the 
straw.  There  is  a  complete  revolution  in  the  two 
grains.  •  •  •  •  Corn  has  not  fluctuated ;  it  has 
been  a  steady  crop,  and  governed  by  the  seasons. 
Oats  the  same.  Flax  has  run  nearly  the  same 
round  as  wheat  anu  oarley." 

Two  causes  have,  by  vegetable  physiologists,  been 
assigned  for  this  action  of  plants  on  the  soil,  both  of 
which  have  been  advocated  with  great  skill,  and  in 
favour  of  both  of  which  a  formidable  array  of  facts 
and  experiments  may  be  adduced.  One  of  these 
theories  supposes  that  a  specific  food  for  each  kind 
of  plant  exists  in  greater  or  less  quantities  in  the 
soil,  and  that,  when  this  food  is  exhausted  by  a  suc- 
cession of  crops  of  the  same  kind,  the  plant  must  of 
necessity  fail  for  want  of  its  proper  nourishment. 
In  this  way  the  changes  of  forest  timber  noted 
above  may  be  explained,  since  rendering  the  soil 
unfit  for  the  production  of  one  kind  of  plant  by  no 
means  disqualifies  it  for  growing  another.  By  this 
theory,  also,  the  cause  of  the  changes  of  the  grain- 
crops  in  our  country  is  made  plain  ;  as  the  specific 
food  of  each  plant  being  in  a  great  degree  different, 
that  required  by  the  rye  had  been  untouched  by  the 


SPECIFIC  FOOD  IN  SOILS  FOR  PLANTS.      303 

wheat,  and  vice  versa.  The  second  theory  by  which 
these  facts  are  accounted  for  is  that  of  the  justly 
celebrated  De  Candolle,  which  supposes  that  plants, 
in  growing,  secrete  substances  injurious  to,  and  not 
required  by  them  ;  which  substances,  strictly  excre- 
mentitious,  are  thrown  off  by  the  roots  into  the  soil, 
and,  by  repetitions  of  the  process,  finally  render  it 
unfit  for  the  growth  of  the  plant.  This  excremenli- 
tious  matter  is,  however,  supposed  to  affect  no  plants 
except  those  of  the  same  kind  with  that  from  which 
it  has  been  ejected :  thus  that  from  the  pine  would 
not  prevent  the  growth  of  the  oak,  nor  would  that 
which  rendered  the  soil  unfit  for  wheat  injure  in  the 
least  a  crop  of  rye. 

It  is  clear  that  most  of  the  phenomena  alluded  to 
above  as  attending  a  succession  of  crops  on  the 
same  soil,  or  the  changes  which  the  forests  of  a 
country  undergo,  may  be  explained  by  either  of 
these  theories ;  and  it  is  not  •  improbable  that  both 
may  be  more  or  less  influential  at  the  same  time. 
To  us  the  weight  of  testimony  has  appeared  to  be  in 
favour  of  the  theory  which  attributes  these  changes 
to  an  exhaustion  of  the  specific  food  of  the  plant  ra- 
ther than  to  the  excretion  of  poisonous  matter  from 
the  preceding  vegetation.  It  must  be  admitted,  how- 
ever, that  the  experiments  of  De  Candolle  and  Ma- 
caire  go  far  to  prove  such  an  exudation  or  secretion 
form  plants  ;  and,  this  fact  once  established,  it  cannot 
be  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  the  matter  thus  re- 
jected must  be  unsuitable  for  the  succeeding  plant, 
should  it  be  one  requiring  the  same  kind  of  nutri- 
ment. 

Thus,  admitting  the  truth  of  either  of  these  the- 
ories, or  of  both,  we  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that 
change  of  plants  is  a  law  of  nature  ;  and  the  manner 
in  which  we  can  imitate  her,  and  thus  avoid  the  in- 
evitable consequences  of  continued  successions  of 
the  same  kind  of  plant,  is  distinctly  pointed  out. 
Nature  restores  the  original  constituents  of  the  soil 


304  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

by  a  slow  and  gradual  process :  science  has  enabled 
us  greatly  to  abridge  this  period,  by  producing  our- 
selves, in  rapid  succession,  the  same  changes  that 
nature,  unassisted,  would  require  half  a  century  to 
effect.  We  do  this  in  two  ways :  either  by  resto- 
ring to  the  soil,  in  the  form  of  manures,  what  we  have 
taken  from  it  in  the  shape  of  grain  or  grass,  or  by 
such  a  rotation  of  crops  as  shall  prevent  the  ex- 
haustion of  the  specific  food  of  the  plant*  in  the  one 
case,  or  the  injurious  accumulation  of  excrementi- 
tious  matter  in  the  other.  The  successful  combina- 
tion of  both  these  methods,  manuring  and  rotation, 
constitutes  the  great  secret  of  successful  agricul- 
ture ;  and  the  establishment  of  the  principles  on 
which  the  system  is  based  may  be  considered  the 
greatest  improvement  of  its  age.  In  those  parts  of 
our  own  country  and  in  Europe  where  the  system 
of  manuring  and  rotation  has  been  fully  adopted,  a 
steady  improvement  in  the  soil  and  in  the  crops  is 
clearly  apparent,  and  not  the  least  symptom  of  ex- 
haustion or  of  deterioration  can  be  seen.  It  is  time 
that  the  unphilosophical  system  of  taking  crop  aftet 
crop  of  the  same  kind  from  land  should  be  aban- 
doned for  the  more  rational  one  pointed  out  by  na- 
ture herself,  and  which  has  been  proved  to  be  so  far 
superior  to  the  former  methods.  Com,  wheat,  clo- 
ver, and  manure  (the  last  applied  to  the  first  crop) 
have  trebled  the  produce  of  the  lands  in  Dutchess 
and  on  Long  Island  within  thirty  years ;  and  lands 
that  had  been  exhausted  and  abandoned  have  been 
reclaimed,  and  restored  to  a  state  of  fertility  rivalling 
the  best  districts  of  the  West.  There  is  great  rea- 
son to  fear  that  this  subject  is  not  yet  properly  ap- 
preciated by  our  farmers.  We,  in  the  comparatively 
new  parts  of  our  country,  go  on  as  though  exhaus- 
tion were  impossible,  and  reducing  the  fertihty  of 
our  lands  a  mere  fiction.  Do  we  not  already  begin 
to  perceive  proofs  (and  particularly  where  the  skin- 
ning process  in  cropping  is  adopted)  that  these 


JUDGE    DUEL  S    ADDRESS.  305 

causes  have  already  begun  to  operate  1  Do  we  get 
as  much  wheat  per  acre  on  such  lands  as  we  did 
twenty  years  ago  ?  If  not,  to  what  cause  shall  we  at- 
tribute the  falling  oft'1  One  of  the  most  important 
questions  a  farmer  can  ask.  himself  is,  How  shall 
tnis  reduction  of  crops  be  arrested  where  it  has  al- 
ready commenced,  and  prevented  where  it  does  not 
yet  exist  ? 


CHAPTER  XII. 

Address  of  the  Hon  Judge  Buel,  delivered  before  the  Agricul- 
tural and  Horticultural  Societies  of  New-Haven  County, 
September  25,  1839. 

I  APPEAR  here,  gentlemen,  by  invitation,  to  address 
you  on  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  which  it  is  the  ob- 
ject of  the  associations  here  convened  to  promote 
improvement  in.  I  have  been  prompted  in  the  un- 
dertaking rather  by  a  desire  to  render  a  service, 
than  from  any  confidence  in  my  ability  to  perform 
one ;  and,  in  the  few  remarks  I  have  to  offer,  shall 
need  much  of  your  indulgence  for  imperfections  in 
style  and  deficiency  in  matter. 

Agriculture  and  Horticulture  are  intimately  related 
to  each  other.  They  both  depend  upon  the  soil,  and 
the  animals  and  plants  which  it  nurtures,  for  sup- 
port, for  profit,  and  for  pleasure.  They  both  admin- 
ister and  are  indispensable  to  our  wants  and  com- 
forts. They  are  governed  in  their  operations  by  the 
same  natural  laws.  Agriculture  has  cognizance  of 
the  farm,  which  supplies  our  principal  wants ;  Hor- 
ticulture of  the  garden,  which  administers  to  our 
more  refined  appetites,  to  our  health,  and  to  the  ra- 
tional pleasures  of  the  mind.  The  one  gives  us 
bread  and  meat,  and  the  materials  for  our  clothing; 
I.— A  A 


806  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

the  Other,  choice  dehcacies  for  the  table,  aid  multi- 
plies around  us  the  charms  of  floral  beauty  and  xu- 
riU  scenery.  Both  tend  to  beget  habits  of  useful 
industry  and  sober  reflection,  and  to  improve  us  in 
all  the  social  relations  of  life.  It  is  befitting,  there- 
fore, that  institutions  designed  to  foster  and  pro- 
mote improvements  in  these  primary  and  associate 
branches  of  labour  should  unite  in  their  anniver- 
sary celebration,  and  in  returning  thanks  to  the  Su- 
preme Being  for  the  bounties  of  a  fruitful  season. 

Of  tlie  utility  of  these  celebrations,  and  the  exhi- 
bition of  the  products  of  the  farm  and  garden  wijich 
are  made  at  them,  I  have  no  kind  of  doubt.  They 
bring  to  public  notice  whatever  is  new  and  most 
valuable  in  a  business  which  highly  interests  us. 
They  perform  the  work  of  years  in  diffusing  useful 
knowledge  in  all  the  departments  of  rural  labour. 
They  awaken  in  the  bosoms  of  hundreds  the  dor- 
mant powers  of  the  mind,  which  otherwise  might 
have  slumbered  in  apathy.  They  excite  to  indus- 
try, to  emulation,  and  to  the  study  of  those  laws 
which  everywhere  control  the  visible  creation,  and 
which  enlighten  and  reward  all  who  humbly  seek 
and  follow  their  counsels.  Nor  is  it  the  cultivator 
of  the  farm  and  ganlen  alone  that  are  to  be  benefit- 
ed by  these  exhibitions.  Whatever  tends  to  in- 
crease and  improve  the  products  of  the  soil,  serves 
to  augment  the  common  stock,  and  enables  the 
grower  to  supply  the  market  with  more  and  better 
products,  and  to  buy  more  liberally  of  the  other 
classes  in  return.  The  merchant,  the  manufacturer, 
the  mechanic,  and  the  professional  man,  have  all, 
therefore,  as  deep  an  interest  in  promoting  the  im- 
provement of  agriculture  and  horticulture  as  the 
farmer  and  gardener  have.  Society  is  in  some 
measure  a  joint  concern,  at  least  so  for  as  relates  to 
what  are  termed  the  producing  classes  ;  the  more 
these  cam  by  their  labour,  the  greater  is  the  acces- 
sion of  substantial  wealth  to  the  community.    The 


JUDGE  buel's  addrlss.      307 

amount  of  honey  in  a  hive  depends  not  upon  the  num- 
ber-of  bees  which  it  contains,  but  upon  the  labour  and 
skill  of  the  working  bees.  The  farmer  virtually  pro- 
vides for  the  other  classes,  and  is,  at  the  same  time, 
their  principal  patron  and  customer ;  and,  although 
his  labours  are  too  often  held  to  be  low  and  menial  by 
those  who  cannot  or  will  not  appreciate  their  value, 
his  condition  affords  the  best  criterion  by  which  to 
judge  of  the  welfare  of  those  around  him.  No  coun- 
try can  long  flourish,  or  preserve  its  moral  and  physi- 
cal health,  whose  agriculture  is  neglected  and  degra- 
ded. The  amount  of  a  farmer's  sales  and  of  his 
purchases  will  depend  upon  the  profits  of  his  labour. 
Double  these  by  an  improved  system  of  husbandry, 
Avhich  I  feel  assured  can  be  done,  and  which  has 
been  far  more  than  realized  in  many  old  districts  of 
our  country,  and  you  will  double  the  substantial 
wealth  of  the  neighbourhood,  and  impart  correspond- 
ing life  and  activity  to  every  other  department  of 
business.  If  we  look  to  Spain,  to  Portugal,  to  a 
great  portion  of  Italy,  to  South  America,  or  any 
other  country  where  agriculture  is  neglected,  or 
holds  but  a  subordinate  rank,  we  shall  find  a  de- 
graded population,  characterized  by  superstitious  ig- 
norance, poverty,  and  crime.  Every  class  of  the 
community,  therefore,  has  a  deep  interest  in  pro- 
moting the  improvement  of  the  soil ;  and  all  should 
willingly  contribute  their  aid  towards  enhghtening, 
honouring,  and  rewarding  th^se  who  are  honestly 
employed  in  its  cultivation. 

With  regard  to  the  utility  of  agricultural  and  hor- 
ticultural societies,  much  will  depend  upon  the  ob- 
jects which  bring  their  members  together.  If  they 
associate  for  selfish  purposes,  merely  to  monopolize 
the  spoils,  and  withdraw  whenever  they  are  disap- 
pointed in  their  sinister  hopes,  jealousies  and  apathy 
will  ensue,  and  the  association  will  fall,  as  many 
under  like  circumstances  have  fallen,  without  pub- 
Uc  loss  or  public  regret.     But  if  the  association  be 


308 


AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 


formed  for  mutual  improvement,  and  in  the  benevo- 
l'"!ht  and  patriotic  desire  to  do  a  public  good ;  to 
stimulate  and  reward  industry  and  enterprise,  how- 
ever humble  their  condition ;  and  if  it  strive,  by  con- 
centrated and  persevering  efforts,  to  improve  the 
condition  of  a  district,  of  a  county,  or  a  state,  then 
will  it  inspire  public  confidence,  obtain  public  sup- 
port, and  become  a  public  blessing.  To  illustrate 
this  last  proposition,  I  beg  to  refer  to  some  associa- 
tions which  have  been  tried,  and  whose  labours  have 
been  crowned  with  palpable  and  brilliant  success. 

The  counties  of  Berkshire,  Essex,  and  Worcester 
in  Massachusetts,  have  each,  for  many  years,  main- 
tained an  agricultural  society ;  and  they  each  dis- 
tribute ten  or  twelve  hundred  dollars  a  year,  one 
half  of  which  is  paid  out  of  the  state  treasury,  in 
prizes  to  successful  competitors  in  the  varibus  de- 
partments of  agricultural  and  household  labour.  It 
is  said,  and  I  believe  with  truth,  that  every  dollar 
ihiis  expended  has  made  a  return  of  twenty  dollars 
in  the  increase  of  agricultural  products  which  it  has 
caused  ;  and  so  satisfied  are  the  inhabitants  of  the 
benefits  of  the  expenditure,  that  an  increased  spirit 
is  annually  manifested  by  all  classes  to  maintain 
and  perpetuate  these  nurseries  of  industry  and  im- 
provement. 

The  Highland  Society  of  Scotland  affords  another 
illustrious  example  of  the  utility  of  agricultural  as- 
sociations, when  conducted  with  a  view  to  public 
improvement.  This  society  was  organized  in  1784 ; 
but  so  few  were  its  members  and  so  limited  its 
means,  that  it  attracted  but  little  public  notice,  nor 
effected  any  great  improvement  in  husbandry  till 
the  commencement  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Yet 
it  had  sown  the  good  seed,  which  never  fails,  under 
proper  management,  to  yield  to  the  husbandman  a 
bountiful  harvest.  Nor  did  it  fail  in  this  case.  The 
society  now  numbers  twenty-two  hundred  members, 
embracing  most  of  the  opulent  and  influential  men 


JDDGE  buel's  address.      309 

of  the  country,  of  all  professions,  and  distributes  an- 
nually in  prizes  about  seventeen  thousand  dollars. 
In  no  country  or  district  has  agriculture  made  more 
mpid  strides  in  improvement  than  it  has  in  Scot- 
land since  the  organization  of  this  society ;  which, 
although  it  may  not  have  been  the  only,  has  most 
assuredly  been  a  principal,  cause  of  this  wonderful 
and  salutary  change.  Up  to  1792,  the  agriculture 
of  Scotland,  to  adopt  the  language  of  the  Edinburgh 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture,  was  "  wretched  ; 
execrably  bad  in  all  its  localities !  Hardly  any 
wheat  was  attempted  to  be  grown  ;  oats  full  of  this- 
tles was  the  standard  crop,  and  this  was  repeated  on 
the  greater  part  of  the  arable  land,  while  it  would 
produce  twice  the  seed  thrown  into  it;  turnips,  as 
part  of  the  rotation  of  crops,  was  unknown  ;  few  po- 
tatoes were  raised,  and  no  grass-seeds  or  clover 
were  sown.  A  great  part  of  the  summer  was  em- 
ployed, in  the  now  fertile  shire  of  Fife,  in  pulling 
thistles  out  of  the  oats  and  bringing  them  home  for 
the  horses,  or  mowing  the  rushes  or  other  aquatic 
plants  that  grew  on  the  bogs  around  the  home- 
stead." But  a  change  soon  came  over  the  land. 
The  seed  which  had  been  sown  by  the  Highland  So- 
ciety had  germinated,  and  its  luxuriant  foliage  al- 
ready covered  the  soil.  In  1815,  according  to  the 
authority  I  am  quoting,  "  beautiful  fields  of  wheat 
were  to  be  seen;  drilled  green  crops  everywhere 
abounded ;  the  bogs  had  disappeared  ;  the  thistles 
no  longer  existed  ;"  naked  fallows  were  abolished ; 
draining  was  extensively  introduced ;  wet  lands 
were  made  dry ;  poor,  weeping  clays  were  convert- 
ed into  turnip  soils  ;  and  "  whole  parishes  were  com- 
pletely transformed  from  unsightly  marshes  into 
beautiful  and  rich  wheat-fields ;  and  where  the  plough 
could  scarcely  be  driven  for  slush  and  water,  were 
heavy  crops  per  acre  and  heavy  weight  per  bush- 
el."*    The   improvements  in  Scottish  husbandry 

»  Quarterly  Journal  of  Agriculture  for  June,  1839,  p.  70. 


810  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

have  continued  to  advance  until,  according  to  the 
estimate  of  Sir  John  Sinclair  and  Professor  Lowe, 
both  high  authority,  until  the  acreable  products  of 
her  soil  more  than  double  those  of  our  Atlantic 
states. 

The  means  adopted  by  the  Highland  Society  to 
eifect  these  radical  improvements  in  Scottish  hus- 
bandry are  such  as  may  be  employed  by  us  with  al- 
most a  certainty  of  corresponding  success.  "  In  the 
days  of  its  youth  and  feebleness,"  says  the  Quarterly 
Journal  which  I  have  just  quoted,  "the  Highland 
Society  sent  the  leaven  of  the  turnip  husbandry  into 
all  the  glens  and  straths  of  the  North,  by  offers  of 
small  prizes  to  certain  Highland  parishes,  and  the 
same  may  be  said  as  to  the  growth  of  clover  and  the 
finer  grasses.  As  it  advanced  in  strength  as  to  num- 
bers and  to  cash,  attention  was  turned  to  premiums 
for  stock  ;  then  came  offers  of  reward  to  men  of  sci- 
ence to  discover  better  implements  and  machines,  to 
diminish  friction,  and  consequently  draught,  such  as 
in  the  threshing-mill,  and  other  parts  of  agricultural 
machinery.  Still  advancing  in  the  scale  of  intellec?t 
and  of  science,  premiums  were  offered  for  essays  to 
bring  to  light  the  facts  connected  with  chymistry 
and  natural  philosophy ;  and  under  the  auspices  of 
the  society  was  set  up  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Ag- 
riculture, a  work  which  has  been  the  vehicle  of  con- 
veying so  much  useful  information  to  the  agricultu- 
rist, that  we  humbly  venture  to  say  it  ought  to  ap>- 
pear  on  the  bookshelf  and  table  of  every  farmer's 
parlour.  After  this,  the  great  stock  shows  were  re- 
solved upon."  At  the  Glasgow  show  in  1838  there 
were  exhibited  for  prizes  461  neat  cattle,  1'21  horses, 
274  sheep,  and  47  swine;  total,  903  domestic  ani- 
mals, in  034  lots.  Of  the  other  competitors  the 
numbers  were  as  follows ; 


JUDGE  BUEL's  address.        311 

For  Butter                ,        .        .        .  *     .        .  18 

"    Full  Milk  Cheese J5 

"    Skim  Milk  Cheese 6 

"    Wool 8 

"    Koots  and  Seeds 13 

"    Implements 28 

In  88  lots. 

The  number  of  persons  present  was  estimated  at 
over  17,000,  besides  workmen  and  official  people; 
not  one  in  a  thousand  of  whom  probably  left  the  ex- 
hibition without  carrying  home  with  him  some  new- 
ly-acquired knowledge  in  his  business,  or  some  new 
stimulants  to  improvement  and  industry.  Not  only 
has  Scotland  profited  by  the  labours  of  her  agricul 
tural  society,  but  Great  Britain  generally,  and  even 
the  United  States  have  been  highly  benefited  by 
them.  The  information  which  that  society  has  pro- 
mulgated has  been  widely  disseminated  among  us 
by  our  agricultural  journais,  and  has  contributed  not 
a  little  to  the  improvement  of  the  agriculture  of  our 
country.  And  in  England,  which  had  been  thrown 
into  the  background  by  the  superior  improvements 
in  Scottish  husbandry,  it  has  within  the  last  year 
induced  the  formation  of  the  English  Agricultural 
Society,  on  a  broad  and  liberal  scale,  which  prom- 
ises important  advantages  to  Enghsh  husbandry,  and 
to  agriculture  generally. 

As  evidence  of  the  utility  of  horticultural  societies 
in  multiplying  and  improving  the  products  of  our 
gardens  and  in  promoting  rural  embellishments,  I 
would  refer  to  the  neighbourhoods  of  Boston  and 
Philadelphia,  where  societies  of  this  kind  have  long 
existed,  and  to  the  Horticultural  Society  of  London. 
In  the  first-named  cities  and  their  environs,  the 
progress  of  horticultural  improvement  has  been 
manifestly  great.  ISlany  new  and  choice  fruits,  cu- 
linary vegetables,  and  ornamental  plants  have  been 
introduced,  culture  has  beeii  much  improved,  the 
markets   better  supplied,    and    prices  cheapened. 


312  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

The  London  Sociely,  although  its  garden  has  been 
established  but  about  twenty  years,  has  concentrated 
in  it,  from  both  continents  and  from  the  islands  of 
the  sea,  embracing  every  clime,  more  than  five  thou- 
sand varieties  of  edible  fruits,  including  fourteen 
hundred  varieties  of  the  apple,  and  seven  hundred  of 
the  pear,  and  an  almost  endless  number  of. orna- 
mental plants,  many  of  them  before  unknown  in  pur 
catalogues.  Its  collection  of  pears,  which  embrace 
I'undreds  of  recent  origin  from  Flanders  and  from 
France,  have  been  alrejidy  broadly  spread  over  these 
states,  and  supply  our  dessert  with  a  succession  of 
this  deUcious  fruit.  As  a  corresponding  member  of 
this  society,  I  have  participated,  and  have  enabled 
others  to.  participate,  in  the  good  which  it  has  been 
generously  diffusing  abroad.  In  1825,  and  at  sub- 
sequent periods,  1  have  been  suppHed  liberally  with 
grafts  of  the  choicest  fruits  which  it  had  collected. 

The  great  obstacles  to  horticultural  improvement 
are  ignorance  of  the  relative  merits  of  different  kinds 
of  fruits  and  culinary  vegetables,  and  of  the  proper 
modes  of  cultivating  and  preparing  them  for  the  ta- 
ble. The  generality  of  country  gardens  exhibit  but 
a  scanty  assortment  of  vegetable  productions,  and 
these  but  badly  cultivated,  and  often  of  inferior  qual- 
ity. The  tendency  of  horticultural  exhibitions  is  to 
show  the  good  and  bad  in  contrast,  or  raiher  to  pro- 
mulgate a  knowledge  of  the  better  sorts,  of  their  cul- 
ture and  use,  to  excite  useful  competition,  and  to 
demonstrate  the  utility  of  garden  culture  as  a  source 
of  health,  pleasure,  and  profit.  I  have  had  many 
fruits  presented  to  me  which  the  donors  considered 
of  the  first  quality,  but  which  I  found,  on  compari- 
son, to  be  of  secondary  or  inferior  grade.  The  man 
who  has  seen  or  tasted  only  inferior  fruits,  may 
well  mistake  them  for  good  ones.  It  is  as  easy  to 
cultivate  good  fruits  as  bad  ones  ;  and  no  one  eats  so 
good  fruits  as  he  who  cultivates  them  himself.  It  is 
as  easy  to  cultivate  the  vergaleu  as  it  is  the  choke- 


JUDGE  BUELS  ADDRESS.        313 

pear ;  the  green-gage  as  the  horse-plum ;  and  yet 
the  difference  between  them,  in  all  the  qualities 
which  we  most  esteem,  is  incomparably  great.  But, 
till  we  can  show  our  neighbour  better  fruits,  he  will 
continue  to  cultivate  and  rest  content  with  his  choke- 
peaf  and  horse-plum. 

With  regard  to  what  is  termed  ornamental  gar- 
dening, or  the  cultivation  of  flowering  shrubs  and 
plants,  there  is  an  objection,  real  or  affected,  often 
made  by  very  many  people,  on  the  ground  that  it 
yields  no  profit.  If  the  great  object  of  life  were  to 
accumulate  money,  without  enjoying  any  of  the  com- 
forts, save  the  gratification  of  animal  appetite,  the 
objection  would  be  conclusive.  But  we  are  endowed 
with  other  and  higher  appetites  than  the  mere  brute  ; 
and  Providence  has  everywhere  surrounded  us  with 
suitable  objects  for  their  development  and  innocent 
gratification.  Shall  we,  then,  reject  the  proffered 
benefactions  so  kindly  tendered  because  they  add 
nothing  to  our  pelf  ?  And  what  is  there  in  the  nat- 
ural creation  better  calculated  to  soften  down  the 
rough  asperities  of  our  nature,  to  awaken  kind  feel- 
ings towards  each  other,  and  to  excite  reverence  and 
love  for  the  Most  High,  than  a  familiar  acquaintance 
with  the  wonders  and  beauties  of  His  vegetable 
kingdom.  Did  you  ever  know  a  misanthrope  or  a 
miser  who  was  an  admirer  of  flowers  1  I  would  not 
recommend  the  neglect  of  more  important  duties  for 
the  culture  of  a  flower-garden ;  yet,  when  there  is 
ability  or  leisure  (and  these  may  be  found  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent  in  almost  every  family),  a  taste  for 
floral  beauties  should  be  inculcated  in  the  young,  not 
only  as  a  source  of  rational  pleasure,  but  as  a  salu- 
tary precaution  against  bad  companions  and  bad  hab- 
its. The  mind  must  be  employed  and  must  have 
recreation.  It  is  better  to  direct  it  to  the  works  of 
the  Creator  than  to  the  works  of  man.  Lord  Bacon 
has  said  of  the  garden,  "  It  affords  the  purest  of  hu- 
man pleasures  :  the  greatest  refreshment  to  the  spin' 


314  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

of  man  :  without  which,  buildings  aud  palaces  <ire 
but  gross  handiworks." 

But  I  am  forgetting  myself.  In  my  ardour  to 
commend  horticulture  for  its  useful,  elevating,  and 
purifying  influence  upon  the  habits  and  maimers  of 
society,  1  did  not  recollect  that  1  am  addressing  the 
highly-polished  inhabitants  of  a  classic  city,  who 
have  long  since  demonstrated  in  practice  the  truth 
of  the  lessons  I  would  inculcate.  I  will  therefore 
dismiss  this  branch  of  my  subject,  and  turn  to  the 
less  attractive,  though  more  important  topic  of  agri- 
culture ;  barely  adding. 

That  in  all  endeavours  to  improve  the  condition 
of  society,  whether  religious,  moral,  or  industrial,  in- 
dividual efforts  and  example  can  affect  but  little ; 
and  hence,  that  in  every  great  work  of  reform  or 
improvement,  the  concentrated  strength  of  many 
has  been  resorted  to  and  brought  to  a  focus  by 
means  of  aissociations ;  and  that  the  great  objects  of 
society  are  not  likely  to  be  promoted  in  a  more  em- 
inent degree  by  any,  than  by  associations  formed  for 
like  purposes  with  those  which  I  have  now  the  hon- 
our to  address. 

Being  a  native  of  this  state,  and  having  spent  my 
early  days  within  its  borders,  I  can  well  remember 
the  fai'ming  practices  that  were  wont  to  prevail. 
The  farm  was,  to  use  the  commendatory  language 
of  that  day,  "  suitably  divided  into  meadow,  pasture, 
and  plough  land ;"  and  each  division  was  exclusively 
devoted  to  its  object,  until  most  of  the  nutritious 
grasses  had  "  run  out"  in  the  meadow,  and  the  plough- 
land  had  become  too  much  impoverished  to  bear  a 
remunerating  crop.  Many  an  acre  was  turned  into 
"  old  ficliV  or  commons,  destitute  alike  of  natural  or 
artificial  herbage,  affording  scanty  gleanings  to  half- 
famished  cattle.  I  beg  not  to  be  misunderstood.  I 
am  describing  what  was  a  bad  feature  in  Yankee 
husbandry.  Farming  has  no  doubt  recently  under- 
gone great  improvements  in  Connecticut,  as  it  has 


JUDGE  buel's  address.      315 

elsewhere.  Yet,  on  a  fair  comparison  with  highly- 
cullivated  agricultural  districts,  I  believe  it  will  be 
found  that  the  husbandry  of  this  state,  in  the  main, 
IS  susceptible  of  great  improvement.  The  lands  of 
Connecticut  were  originally  rich  and  productive. 
The  seasons  are  about  as  propitious  as  they  were 
wont  to  be ;  the  earthy  elements  remain  in  a  great 
measure  unchanged ;  and  the  lessons  in  improve- 
ment that  have  been  taught  elsewhere,  leave  little 
reason  to  doubt  that,  under  proper  management, 
these  elements  may  again  be  restored  to  their  ori- 
ginal fertihty. 

In  a  late  tour  which  I  made  through  parts  of  New- 
York  and  New-Jersey,  I  found  many  evidences  of  re- 
cent improvement,  and  I  doubt  not  that  similar  ones 
abound  in  my  native  state.  In  a  part  of  Dutchess 
county  which  I  visited,  the  best  farms  have  been 
sold  within  my  recollection,  with  improvements  and 
buildings,  at  from  seven  to  seventeen  dollars  an  acre. 
They  cannot  now  be  bought  for  one  hundred  dollars 
an  acre  ;  and  one  was  sold  last  year  at  auction,  with- 
out buildings,  at  one  hundred  and  thirty  dollars  an 
acre.  Fifteen  years  ago,  a  farm  in  Western  New- 
York  of  400  acres,  exhausted  by  bad  husbandry,  was 
bought  by  a  Scotch  farmer  for  $4000.  This  farm 
has  been  so  improved  by  good  husbandry,  that  the 
owner  was  last  year  offered  for  it  $40,000.  He  re- 
fused the  offer  upon  the  ground  that  it  actually  net- 
ted him  the  mterest  of  $60,000,  or  $1050  the  acre. 
A  farm  was  pointed  out  to  me  in  New-Jersey  which 
was  recently  sold  for  $7  the  acre,  and  that  was  all 
it  was  said  to  have  been  worth  in  its  then  condition. 
By  a  liberal  outlay  in  draining,  it  being  level  and  wet 
ground,  and  in  liming,  manurmg,  &c.,  it  is  now  con- 
sidered worth  $125  an  acre,  i  went  over  another 
farm  which  a  few  years  ago  was  bought  at  the  same 
price,  and  which  now,  on  account  of  the  improve- 
ments which  have  been  made  upon  it,  is  .considered 
worth  $100  per  acre.    I  am  informed,  on  the  best 


316  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

authority,  that  similar  cases  of  the  rapid  increase  in 
the  products  and  value  of  farms,  consequent  upon  an 
improved  system  of  management,  are  to  be  found  in 
Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  Maryland.  Although 
these  cases  are  isolated  ones,  they  nevertheless 
serve  to  show  the  practicability  of  vastly  increasing 
the  value  and  products  of  our  exhausted  lands. 

Among  the  causes  which  have  essentially  con- 
tributed to  the  deterioration  of  our  l.mds  and  the 
consequent  depression  of  our  agriculture,  I  consider 
the  following  as  prominent : 

Ignorance  of  the  principles  of  agriculture  ; 

The  want  of  a  sufficient  outlay  in  the  manage- 
ment of  our  farms ;  and 

The  low  estimation  in  which  the  employment  has 
been  held  by  all  classes,  including  farmers  them- 
selves. 

Agriculture  has  too  generally  been  considered  a 
business  requiring  mere  physical  power,  with  which 
the  principles  of  natural  science  had  little  or  nothing 
to  do.  To  plough,  sow,  and  gather  the  crop  has 
been  the  general  routine  of  farming  operations,  re- 
gardless of  the  poverty  which  our  practice  was  in- 
flicting upon  the  soil  and  upon  our  children.  Like 
the  reckless  heir  of  wealth,  we  found  ourselves  in 
possession  of  a  treasure ;  and  without  inquiring  for 
what  purpose  it  came  into  our  hands,  or  realizing 
our  obligations  to  husband  and  preserve  it  for  oth- 
ers, we  have  squandered  it  lavishly,  through  our  ig- 
norance or  our  folly.  True,  we  have  been  occasion- 
ally admonished  of  our  error  by  the  schoolmen, 
who,  wrapped  in  abstract  science,  and  knowing  little 
practically  of  its  application  to  husbandry,  have  as 
often  tended  to  confuse  and  mystify  as  to  enlighten 
and  instruct.  Hence  the  prejudice  which  has  arisen 
against  book-farming.  But  science  and  art  are  now 
uniting  their  labours,  and  are  deriving  mutual  aid 
from  each  other  on  the  farm,  as  they  have  for  some 
time  been  doing  in  the  manufactory  and  in  the  shop 


lUDOE  BUEL8   ADDRESS.  317 

of  the  artisan.  A  new  era  is  dawning  upon  the  vis- 
ion of  the  farmer  ;  new  light  is  illuming  his  path,  and 
a  new  interest  and  new  pleasures  are  urging  him  on 
to  improvement.  He  begins  to  study  the  laws  which 
Providence  has  ordained  for  the  government  of  im- 

E roved  culture,  and  he  finds,  in  their  application  to 
is  labours,  the  means  of  increasing  profits  and  of 
high  intellectual  enjoyment.  And  the  more  he  stud- 
ies and  is  guided  by  these  laws,  the  more  does  he 
become  satisfied  of  former  errors  and  his  compar- 
atively limited  sphere  of  usefulness.  Science  is 
probably  capable  of  rendering  more  important  ser- 
vices to  husbandry  than  to  ;iny  other  branch  of  la- 
bour, and  presents  a  wider  field  of  useful  study  to 
the  cultivator  of  the  soil  than  to  any  other  class  of 
society. 

The  deficienc}'^  of  farming  capital,  or.  rather,  the 
stinginess  with  which  capital  is  employed  in  im- 
proving and  maintaining  the  condition  of  our  lands, 
is  another  cause  of  declension  in  the  profits  and 
character  of  our  agriculture.  The  farmer  is  too 
prone  to  invest  his  surplus  means  in  some  new  bu- 
siness, or  in  adding  to  his  acres  instead  of  applying 
them  to  increase  the  profit  of  his  labour  and  the  pro- 
ducts of  his  farm.  He  either  works  more  land  than 
he  can  work  well  and  profitably,  or  he  diverts  to 
other  objects  the  means  which  would  yield  a  better 
return  if  applied  to  the  improvement  of  the  soil.  He 
is  apt  to  consider  twenty  or  thirty  dollars  an  enor- 
mous and  wasteful  outlay  upon  an  acre  of  land  or 
upon  a  choice  animal ;  and  yet  the  interest  of  this 
outlay  will  be  ten  times  paid  by  the  increase  of  crop 
or  the  increase  of  the  animal ;  and,  in  most  cases,  the 
principal  also  will  be  returned  to  him  in  the  course 
of  two  or  three  years.  Many  of  the  most  thriving 
farmers  in  Southern  New- York,  New-Jersey,  and 
Pennsylvania  make  a  quadrennial  expenditure  of 
twenty  dollars  or  more  to  manure  an  acre  ;  and  it 
has  become  a  maxim  with  them,  that  the  more  the 


318  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

outlay  for  manure,  the  greater  the  nett  profit  of  their 
lands.  But  it  is  not  the  outlay  for  manure  alone  that 
demands  a  liberal  expenditure  of  capital.  Good 
seed,  good  farm-stock,  and  good  implements  are  all 
essential  to  the  economy  of  labour,  and  to  neat  and 
profitable  farming.  And  I  think  it  will  appear,  from 
the  cases  I  have  quoted,  that  in  many  locations  cap- 
ital may  be  very  advantageously  employed  in  re- 
claiming wet  and  marshy  grounds,  generally  rich 
and  the  most  productive  when  laid  dry. 

When  our  cattle  grow  lean  and  threaten  to  disap- 
poinl  our  hopes  of  profit,  w^e  do  not  hesitate  to  im- 
pute the  evil  to  the  want  of  food  or  to  inattention  in 
the  herdsman.  And,  if  we  are  prudent  managers, 
we  at  once  graduate  our  stock  to  our  food,  knowing 
that  one  well-fed  animal  is  of  more  value  in  the 
market  than  two  animals  that  carry  but  skin  and 
bones,  and  we  take  care  that  the  food  is  properly 
fed  out.  When  our  crops  become  lean,  we  need  not 
hesitate  to  ascribe  the  decrease  in  product  to  like 
causes — want  of  food,  or  want  of  attention  in  the 
farmer;  and  prudence  and  profit,  in  like  manner, 
require  that  our  crops,  like  our  animals,  should  be 
limited  to  the  food  and  labour  which  we  have  to  be- 
stow upon  them.  In  other  words,  an  acre  well  ma- 
nured and  well  worked  will  be  found  to  be  more 
profitable  than  four  poor  acres  badly  worked. 

I  may  here  be  asked,  from  whence  are  to  be  ob- 
tained the  vast  supplies  of  manure  requisite  to  ma- 
nure our  old  lands  ]  I  answer,  from  a  multiplicity 
of  sources  around  us,  from  every  animal  and  vege- 
table substance  within  our  reach.  Nothing  that  has 
once  been  part  of  an  animal  or  a  vegetable  but  can 
be  converted  into  corn,  grass,  and  roots.  I  think  I 
may  assume  as  facts,  that,  upon  an  average,  not  half 
the  manure  is  saved  upon  our  farms  that  might  be, 
and  that  this  moiety  is  half  lost  before  ii  is  applied 
to  the  soil.  Every  horse,  ox,  or  cow  wintered  upon 
the  farm,  if  well  fed,  and  littered  with  the  straw, 


JUDGE  buel's  address.      319 

stalks,  &c.,of  the  crop,  should  make  from  six  to  ten 
cords  of  good  manure.  Dr.  Coventry,  late  professor 
of  agriculture  at  Edinburgh,  estimated  that  the  straw 
of  an  ordinary  acre  of  grain,  computed  at  21  cvvt., 
may  be  converted  by  the  urine  and  liquids  of  the 
stables  and  cattle-yards  into  three  and  a  half  tons  of 
manure  ;  that  meadovi's  that  cut  one  and  a  half  tons 
of  hay  will  give  four  tons  of^ianure ;  clover,  the 
first  year  six  tons,  and  the  second  year  five  and  a 
half  tons  per  acre ;  and  that,  with  the  extraneous 
substances  which  may,  with  due  care,  be  collected 
without  expense  from  the  roads,  the  ditches,  the 
ponds,  and  from  refuse  of  every  kind  about  the  house 
and  premises,  the  acreable  amount  should  be  amply 
sufficient  for  a  full  supply  of  manure  once  during 
every  course  of  the  four-year  system  of  husbandry. 
Arthur  Young,  with  six  horses,  four  cows,  and  nine 
hogs,  which  consumed  16  loads  of  hay  and  29  loads 
of  straw,  obtained  118  loads  of  manure,  36  bushels 
to  each ;  and  from  45  fatting  oxen,  well  fed  and  lit- 
tered, GOO  tons  of  rotten  manure.  But  an  American 
lawyer,*  and  an  excellent  practical  farmer  withal, 
has  gone  beyond  these  estimates.  I  visited  his  farm 
a  few  weeks  ago,  which  lies  upon  the  seashore.  It 
consists  of  about  200  acres,  most  of  which  was  in  a 
course  of  crops.  The  crops  of  the  season  had  all 
received  an  ample  supply  of  manure,  as  their  ap- 
pearance indicated  ;  and  yet  I  was  shown  masses  of 
well-prepared  compost  in  reserve,  consisting  of  yard 
manure,  peat  ashes,  peat  earth,  seaweed,  and  fish, 
estimated  at  twenty-five  hundred  dollars — all  pro- 
duced upon  his  farm. 

The  third  impediment  to  agricultural  improvement 
which  I  propose  to  notice  is  the  subordinate  rank 
which  has  been  assigned  to  this  employment,  and  to 
which  the  farmers  themselves  have  contributed,  by 
a  want  of  respect  for  themselves  and  for  their  voca- 
tion.    TJie  wholesome  habits  of  society  have  been 

*  W.  A.  Seely.  Eso..  of  Staten  Island, 


320  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

broken  up  by  the  civil  and  political  convulsions  of 
the  age,  and  the  inordinate  thirst  for  acquiring  wealth 
and  fashionable  consequence  through  mercantile  and 
other  speculations,  so  that  honest,  productive  labour 
has  been  thrown  entirely  into  the  background,  and 
considered  not  only  ungenteel,  but  menial  and  ser- 
vile. Yet  I  venture  to  lay  down  this  proposition, 
that  he  who  provides  for  the  wants  and  comforts  of 
himself  and  family,  aitd  renders  some  service  to  so- 
ciety at  large  by  his  mental  and  physical  industry, 
performs  one  of  the  high  duties  of  life,  and  will  ul- 
timately be  rewarded,  in  the  conscious  rectitude  of 
his  life,  by  a  greater  measure  of  substantial  happi- 
ness than  he  who  makes  millions  by  fraud  and  spec- 
ulation, to  be  squandered  in  extravagance,  or  wasted 
in  folly  by  his  children  or  grandchildren.  The  rev- 
olutions that  are  constantly  taking  place  in  families 
sufficiently  admonish  us  that  it  is  not  the  wealth  we 
leave  to  our  children,  but  the  industrious  and  moral 
habits  in  which  we  educate  them,  that  will  secure  to 
them  worldly  prosperity  and  the  treasure  of  an  ap- 
proving conscience. 

The  farmers,  I  have  remarked,  share  in  the  errors 
of  the  day.  Not  content  with  the  gains  which  are 
ever  the  reward  of  prudent  industry,  and  which  might 
be  greatly  increased  by  the  culture  of  the  mind — not 
content  with  one  of  the  most  independent  conditions 
in  society,  hundreds  and  thousands  of  them  seek 
other  and  new  employments,  and  some  those  of  a 
truly  menial  character,  to  get  rid  of  labour  (the  great- 
est blessing  to  man),  and  to  raise  themselves  in  the 
scale  of  fashionable  society.  And  if  they  cannot 
participate  themselves  in  this  imaginary  greatness 
(and  it  is  seldom  anything  more  than  imaginary), 
they  are  anxio  is  to  reflect  the  evil  upon  their  pos- 
terity ;  to  rear  their  sons  to  the  law — the  railroad  to 
office,  to  political  power  and  turmoil ;  to  make  them 
merchants,  a  useful  but  greatly  overstocked  busi- 
ness, or  to  place  them  in  some  other  genteel  em 
ployment,  which  shall  exempt  them  from  the  toils 


jlJDGE  buel's  address.  321 

of  labour,  the  salt  that  best  preserves  from  moral 
corruption. 

Mistaken  men!  What  class  of  men  in  society 
have  within  their  reach  so  many  of  the  elements  of 
human  happiness — so  many  facihties  for  dispensing 
benefits  to  others,  one  of  the  first  duties  and  richest 
pleasures  of  life — as  the  independent  tillers  of  the 
soil !  "  The  farmer,"  says  Franklin,  "  has  no  need 
of  popular  favour ;  the  success  of  his  crops  depends 
only  on  the  blessing  of  God  on  his  honest  industry." 
If  discreetly  conducted  on  the  improved  principles 
of  husbandry,  agriculture  offers  the  certain  means 
of  acquiring  wealth,  and  as  rapidly  as  is  consistent 
with  the  pure  enjoyments  of  life,  or  with  the  good 
order  and  prosperous  condition  of  society.  Agricul- 
ture is  the  golden  mean,  secure  alike  from  the  temp- 
tations of  mushroon  opulence,  and  the  craven  syco- 
phancy and  dependance  of  poverty.  "  Give  me  nei- 
ther poverty  nor  riches"  was  the  prayer  of  the  wise 
n-. m  of  Scripture  ;  "lest,"  he  added,  "lest  I  be  full 
and  deny  thee,  and  say,  who  is  the  Lord  1  or  lest  I 
be  poor  and  steal,  and  take  the  name  of  my  God  in 
vain.'* 

When  we  consider  that  agriculture  is  the  great 
business  of  the  nation — of  mankind;  that  its  suc- 
cessful prosecution  depends  upon  a  knowledge  in 
the  cultivators  of  the  soil  of  the  principles  of  natural 
science  ;  and  that  our  agriculture  stands  in  need  of 
this  auxiliary  aid,  we  cannot  withhold  our  surprise 
and  regret  that  we  have  not  long  since  established 
professional  schools,  in  which  our  youth,  or  such  of 
them  as  are  designed  to  manage  this  branch  of  na- 
tional labour,  might  be  taught  simultaneously  the 
principles  and  practice  of  their  future  business :  a 
business  on  which,  more  than  on  any  other  employ- 
ment in  society,  the  fortunes  of  our  country,  moral, 
political,  and  national,  depend.  We  require  an  ini- 
tiatory study  of  years  in  the  principles  of  law  and 
medicine  before  we  permit  the  pupil  to  practice  in 
these  professions.     We  require  a  like  preliminary 

I.— Bb 


322  AMERICAN   HUSBANDRY 

Btady  in  our  military  and  naval  schools,  in  tho  sci- 
ence of  war  and  navigation,  ere  the  student  is  deem- 
ed qualified  to  command.  And  yet,  in  agriculture, 
by  which,  under  the  blessing  of  Providence,  we  vir- 
tually "  live,  and  move,  and  have  our  being,"  and 
which  truly  embraces  a  wider  range  of  useful  sci- 
ence than  either  law,  medicine,  war,  or  navigation, 
we  have  no  schools,  we  give  no  instruction,  we  be- 
stow no  government  patronage.  Scientific  knowl- 
edge is  deemed  indispensable  in  many  minor  em- 
ployments of  life  ;  but  in  this  great  business,  in  which 
its  influence  would  be  most  potent  and  useful,  we 
consider  it,  judging  from  our  practice,  of  less  conse- 
quence than  the  fictions  of  the  novelist.  We  regard 
mind  as  the  most  efficient  power  in  most  other  pur- 
suits ;  while  we  forget  that  in  agriculture  it  is  the 
Archimedean  lever  which,  though  it  does  not  move, 
tends  to  fill  a  world  with  plenty,  with  moral  health, 
and  human  happiness.  Can  it  excite  surprise,  that, 
under  these  circumstances  of  gross  neglect,  agricul- 
ture should  have  become  among  us,  in  popular  esti- 
mation, a  clownish  and  ignoble  employment  ? 

In  the  absence  of  agricultural  professional  schools, 
could  we  not  do  much  to  enlighten  and  raise  the 
character  of  American  husbandry,  by  making  its 
principles  a  branch  of  study  in  our  district  schools  ? 
This  knowledge  would  seldom  come  amiss,  and  it 
would  often  prove  a  ready  help  under  misfortune  to 
those  who  had  failed  in  other  business.  What  man 
is  there  who  may  not  expect,  at  some  time  of  life, 
to  profit  directly  by  a  knowledge  of  these  principles  ? 
Who  does  not  hope  to  become  the  owner  or  cultiva- 
tor of  a  garden  or  a  farm  1  And  what  man  enjoying 
the  blessing  of  health  would  be  at  a  loss  for  the 
means  of  an  honest  livelihood,  whose  mind  had  been 
early  imbued  with  the  philosophy  of  rural  culture, 
and  who  would  rather  work  than  beg  ? 

An  early  acquaintance  with  natural  science  is  cal- 
culated to  beget  a  taste  for  rural  life  and  rural  Isr 
bours,  as  "i  source  of  pleasure,  profit,  and  honour. 


JUDGE  buel's  address.      323 

It  will  stimulate  to  the  improvement  of  the  mind  ; 
to  elevate  and  purify  it ;  it  will  lead  to  self-respect, 
to  virtuous  moral  deportment.  And  it  will  tend  to 
deter  from  the  formation  of  bad  habits,  which  steal 
upon  the  ignorant  and  the  idle  unawares,  and  which 
consign  thousands  of  young  men  to  poverty  and  dis 
grace,  if  not  to  premature  graves.  A  knowledge  of 
these  principles,  to  a  very  useful  extent,  can  be  ac- 
quired with  as  much  facility  in  the  school  or  upon 
the  farm  as  other  branches  of  learning.  "Why,  then, 
shall  they  not  be  taught  1  Why  shall  we  withhold 
from  our  agricultural  population  that  knowledge 
which  is  so  indispensable  to  their  profit,  to  their  in- 
dependence, and  to  their  correct  bearing  as  free- 
men ■?  Why,  while  we  boast  of  our  superior  privi- 
leges, keep  in  comparative  ignorance  of  their  busi- 
ness that  class  of  our  citizens  who  are  truly  the 
conservators  of  our  freedom  1  I  know  of  but  one 
objection :  the  want  of  teachers.  A  few  years  ago, 
civil  engineers  were  not  to  be  found  among  us.  The 
demand  for  them. created  a  supply.  We  have  de- 
monstrated that  Ave  have  the  materials  for  civil  en- 
gineers, and  that  we  can  work  them  up.  We  have 
materials  for  teachers  of  agricultural  science,  which 
we  can  also  work  up.  Demand  will  always  ensure 
a  supply. 

The  enumeration  of  the  foregoing  obstacles  to 
agricultural  improvement  sufficiently  indicates  the 
mean*  which  will  be  efficient  in  removing  them. 
These  means  consist,  so  far  as  I  now  propose  to 
notice  them, 

1.  In  giving  a,  professional  education  to  the  young 
farmer,  which  shall  embrace  the  principles  and  prac' 
tice  of  the  business  which  he  is  designed  to  follow 
in  life ;  and, 

2.  In  diffusing  more  extensively  among  those  who 
have  completed  their  juvenile  studies,  and  are  better 
fitted  to  profit  by  the  lessons  of  wisdom  and  experi- 
ence, a  knowledge  oi  the  same  principles,  and  of  th© 


324  AMERICAN    HUSBANDRY. 

best  modes  of  practice  which  these  principles  incul- 
cate, and  which  experience  has  proved  to  be  sound. 

We  have  professional  schools  in  almost  every 
business  of  life,  except  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil, 
one  of  the  most  important  and  essential  of  them  all, 
and  one  embracing  a  larger  scope  of  useful  study  in 
natural  science,  and  in  usefulness  to  the  temporal 
wants  of  the  human  family,  than  any  other.  The 
policy  of  monarchs  and  of  privileged  orders  has 
been  to  repress  inteUigence  in  the  agricultural  mass, 
in  order  to  keep  them  in  a  subordinate  station.  But 
neither  the  policy  nor  the  practice  should  be  counte- 
nanced by  us.  Our  agriculturists  are  our  privileged 
class,  if  we  have  such.  They  are  our  sovereigns, 
because,  from  their  superior  numbers,  they  must 
ever  control  our  political  destinies  for  good  or  for 
evil.  And  the  more  inteUigent  and  independent  we 
can  render  them,  the  more  safe  we  make  our  coun- 
try from  the  convulsions  of  internal  feuds  and  the 
dangers  of  foreign  war. 

I  put  the  question  to  fathers :  Would  you  esteem 
that  son  less,  or  think  him  less  likely  to  fulfil  the 
great  duties  of  life,  who  had  been  educated  in  a  pro- 
fessional school  of  agriculture,  with  all  the  high 
qualifications  which  it  would  confer  for  public  and 
domestic  usefulness,  than  him  who  had  been  educa- 
ted for  the  counter,  the  bar,  or  other  high  profession- 
al callings  1  On  which  could  you  best  rely  for  sup- 
port and  comfort  in  the  decline  of  life  1  Nay,  I  will 
venture  to  carry  the  appeal  farther;  to  the  discrim- 
inating judgment  of  the  unmarried  lady :  Would  you 
reject,  as  a  partner  for  life,  the  student  of  such  a 
college,  coming  forth  with  a  sound  mind,  deeply  im- 
bued with  useful  knowledge,  and  a  hale  constitution 
invigorated  by  manly  exercise,  whose  cares  and  af- 
fections were  likely  to  be  concentrated  upon  home 
and  country,  and  whose  precepts  and  examples  would 
tend  to  diffuse  industry,  prosperity,  and  rural  happi- 
ness around  him  ?  The  father's  response  would,  I 
think,  be  an  unliesitating  no  to  the  first  question ; 


JUDGE    BUEl's    ADi.RESS.  325 

and  tlie  lady's,  after  due  deliben.tion,  I  verily  sus- 
pect, would  be  a  half-articulate  amen.  I  pretend 
not  to  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  yet  I  venture  to  pre- 
dict that  many  who  now  hear  me  will  live  to  see 
professional  schools  of  agriculture  established  m 
our  land,  to  see  their  utility  extolled,  and  to  be  in- 
duced to  consider  them  the  best  nurseries  for  repub- 
lican virtues,  and  the  surest  guarantee  for  the  per- 
petuity of  oiT  liberties.  They  should  be  establish- 
ed ;  they  will  be  established ;  and,  the  sooner  they 
are  established,  the  better  for  our  country. 

To  those  who  have  passed  to  manhood,  and  who 
have  made  up  their  minds,  from  necessity  or  from 
choice,  to  till  the  ground,  the  means  of  improve- 
ment, of  studying  the  jrin  ;iples  of  their  business, 
and  of  becoming  acquaii  ted  with  the  most  approved 
modern  practices  in  husl  andry,  the  opportunities  of 
acquiring  useful  knowledge  are  abundant  and  cheap. 
One  of  these  means,  and  a  valuable  one,  is  proffered 
him  through  the  exhibitions  and  publications  of  these 
societies.  Another  is  the  perusal  of  books  upon  ag- 
riculture and  rural  economy,  which  should  form  a 
part  of  social  and  rural  libraries.  And  another  fa- 
cility of  acquiring  this  useful  knowledge  is  afforded 
by  the  agricultural  periodicals  of  our  country,  which, 
besides  containing  a  great  deal  that  is  instructive  in 
the  philosophy  of  farming,  are  a  record  of  the  best 
modes  of  practice,  tind  of  much  that  is  new  and  im- 

Eortant  in  the  various  departments  of  rural  and 
ousehold  labour.  A  volume  of  the  Cultivator,  of 
which  I  can  speak  with  accuracy,  contains  about  as 
much  matter  as  five  or  six  volumes  of  the  popular 
novels  of  the  day,  and  twice  as  much  as  four  num- 
bers of  our  literary  quarterly  journals.  The  price 
of  the  Cultivator  is  one  dollar  per  annum.  I  verily 
think,  that  if  the  farmer  would  divide  his  patronage 
between  political  and  agricultural  journals,  he  would 
be  a  manifest  gainer  in  his  fortune  and  in  his  fami- 
ly ;  would  be  more  happy  in  his  business,  and  more 


826  AMERICAN    UUSBAMDRT. 

domestic  in  his  habits  ;  a  better  manager,  and  a  more 
useful  citizen. 

Time  will  not  permit  me  to  go  into  the  details  of 
modem  improvements  in  husbandry.  These  im- 
provements are  great,  and  afford  the  brighest  hopes 
to  the  philanthropist  and  the  patriot.  No  one  who 
can  carry  back  his  memory  forty  years  can  with- 
hold his  wonder  at  the  astonishing  advances  which 
have  in  that  time  been  made  in  the  manufacturing 
and  mechanic  arts  by  reason  of  the  aids  of  science  ; 
and  those  who  can  scan  the  future  will  have  no  less 
reason  to  rejoice  in  the  anticipated  advantages  which 
are  in  prospect,  from  an  improved  culture  of  the 
mind  and  the  soil,  consequent  upon  a  better  system 
of  education  among  the  agricultural  population,  and 
the  general  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge  which  is 
likely  to  result  from  it. 

I  will  merely  farther  remark  to  the  farmer,  that, 
if  he  would  prosper  in  his  business,  he  should  study, 
practice,  and  adopt  the  better  system  of  husbandry 
which  is  abroad  in  the  land,  and  which  has  already 
greatly  profited  thousands,  so  far  as  his  soil  and  cir- 
cumstances will  permit ;  that  he  should  drain  his 
wet  lands,  economize  his  manures,  and  apply  them 
with  judgment ;  that  he  should  cultivate  well  what 
he  does  cultivate ;  alternate  his  crops ;  extend  his 
root-culture ;  increase  and  improve  his  stock  as  the 

fffoducts  of  his  farm  will  permit ;  and  substitute  fal- 
ow  crops  for  naked  fallows. 

In  conclusion,  gentlemen,  permit  me  to  express 
my  hearty  wish  that  success  and  honour  may  crown 
your  efforts  to  improve  the  condition  of  your  coun- 
try, industrial  and  moral — associate  benefits  almost 
as  intimately  connected  as  cause  and  effect — and 
that  you  may  long  live  to  enjoy  the  blessings  which 
are  promised  to  him  who  truly  loves  his  neighbour, 
and  reveres  and  worships  his  God. 


Bin>  or  VOL.  I. 


University  of  California  Library 
Los  Alleles 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


L 


rrp    ''  G  1 


^9P 


BIE 


LOS  ANGELES 


"''/»liir71^/«''''°-r. 


lis? 

001085 


S 

521 

G25a 

V.1 


